This thesis analyzes and evaluates the scheme for civil education discussed in Thomas Hobbes’ political works. Hobbes argues in The Elements of Law, De Cive, and Leviathan that the preservation of political order requires that all subjects learn the rationally grounded principles of political theory. Some contemporary scholarship on this aspect of Hobbes’ political philosophy has confined its understanding of “Hobbesian education” to this: the sovereign’s system of true civil doctrines and the means for their dissemination. I argue that for the system of Hobbesian civil doctrines to function as it is intended, a public must also receive instruction in formal argumentation, a skill Hobbes calls “acquired wit” (L viii.13). I will show that the subjects’ cultivation of their individual reasoning abilities is required so the subjects are able to (1) understand the philosophical foundations of the sovereign’s power, (2) sufficiently resist the allure of obfuscating eloquence and other falsehoods, and (3) conduct themselves in accordance with Hobbes’ natural laws. Civil peace in a Hobbesian system requires that the public be able to tell the difference between sound and unsound inferences. If Hobbes did intend for the sovereign to instruct the public in “acquired wit,” contemporary scholars who have offered sympathetic appraisals of Hobbesian education are further vindicated.

Wong, Po Lam. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 81-83). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Table of Contents / Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter I. --- Preliminary Analysis --- p.3 / Chapter a) --- The Importance of the Problem of Practical Primacy --- p.3 / Chapter b) --- "“Reason,´ح “Speculative，´ح “Theoretical´ح and “Practical´ح" --- p.5 / Chapter i) --- The Concept “Reason´ح --- p.5 / Chapter ii) --- “Speculative，´ح “Theoretical´ح and “Practical´ح --- p.7 / Chapter c) --- Reason´ةs Interest --- p.13 / Chapter d) --- Two Perspectives of the Problem of the Primacy --- p.17 / Chapter II. --- Unity and Teleology of Reason as a whole --- p.21 / Chapter a) --- Preliminary --- p.21 / Chapter i) --- Unity of Reason and Moral Theology --- p.21 / Chapter ii) --- An Inconsistency presented in Groundwork and the Second Critique --- p.23 / Chapter b) --- Arguments for the Unity of Reason in the First and Second Critiques --- p.25 / Chapter i) --- Argument from Similarity --- p.25 / Chapter ii) --- Primacy of the Practical in the First and Second Critiques --- p.28 / Chapter iii) --- Other Considerations for the Unity of Reason --- p.32 / Chapter c) --- New Approach to the Unity of Reason --- p.36 / Chapter i) --- Failure in the Argument from Similarity --- p.37 / Chapter ii) --- Idea of a Fundamental Power as a Key to the Problem of the Unity of Reason --- p.38 / Chapter d) --- Unification of Reason --- p.42 / Chapter i) --- Unification of Reason in the First and Second Critiques --- p.42 / Chapter ii) --- Theoretical Reason: From Empirical Laws to Teleological Order of Nature --- p.46 / Chapter iii) --- The Ideas of a Moral World and a Wise Creator --- p.54 / Chapter iv) --- Primacy of the Practical Reconsidered --- p.60 / Chapter III. --- The Superiority of the Practical on Moral Theology --- p.62 / Chapter a) --- The Moral Proof for the Existence of God --- p.62 / Chapter b) --- The Distinction of Knowledge and Faith --- p.68 / Chapter c) --- The Postulate of the Existence of God --- p.73 / Conclusion --- p.80 / References --- p.81

This thesis is concerned with the power of ideas in political philosophy and practice. It argues firstly that Kant???s ideas of reason, as he originally defines them as regulative in the First Critique, play an important role in his political philosophy and his dynamic approach to politics. Secondly, because it is fundamentally concerned with political transition and improvement, Kant???s approach to politics is therefore one that has continuing relevance. Evidence for this is provided via an examination of Rawls??? political liberalism and the manner in which the idea of the reasonable fulfils the role of an idea of reason. The thesis begins with an examination of the regulative use of ideas of reason in the Dialectic of the First Critique: the ideas of soul, world and God become guides for practice, insofar as they are not bearers of truth but instead create essential conditions necessary for human life and meaning. Chapter Two then demonstrates how ideas of reason figure in Kant???s political texts. They condition politics by inspiring the practice of their objects, for example, the establishment of a rightful condition, the security of private property, the perpetuation of peace. That they look to the status quo in order to effect politics, demonstrates their concern with social progress. Chapter Three argues that publicity forms the primary political idea of reason as it enables the polity to use ideas of reason. Because publicity provides the test of efficient and rightful politics, we can say that it is through publicity that Kant???s politics is grounded. Chapter Four investigates Rawls??? political liberalism and observes that the primacy of the idea of the reasonable in his theory works according to a system of ideas of reason as proposed by Kant. Chapter Five then makes a final comparison between Kant and Rawls to demonstrate that ideas of reason, in particular the pre-eminent political idea of public reason, is central to both their conceptions of the political condition.

This thesis is concerned with the power of ideas in political philosophy and practice. It argues firstly that Kant???s ideas of reason, as he originally defines them as regulative in the First Critique, play an important role in his political philosophy and his dynamic approach to politics. Secondly, because it is fundamentally concerned with political transition and improvement, Kant???s approach to politics is therefore one that has continuing relevance. Evidence for this is provided via an examination of Rawls??? political liberalism and the manner in which the idea of the reasonable fulfils the role of an idea of reason. The thesis begins with an examination of the regulative use of ideas of reason in the Dialectic of the First Critique: the ideas of soul, world and God become guides for practice, insofar as they are not bearers of truth but instead create essential conditions necessary for human life and meaning. Chapter Two then demonstrates how ideas of reason figure in Kant???s political texts. They condition politics by inspiring the practice of their objects, for example, the establishment of a rightful condition, the security of private property, the perpetuation of peace. That they look to the status quo in order to effect politics, demonstrates their concern with social progress. Chapter Three argues that publicity forms the primary political idea of reason as it enables the polity to use ideas of reason. Because publicity provides the test of efficient and rightful politics, we can say that it is through publicity that Kant???s politics is grounded. Chapter Four investigates Rawls??? political liberalism and observes that the primacy of the idea of the reasonable in his theory works according to a system of ideas of reason as proposed by Kant. Chapter Five then makes a final comparison between Kant and Rawls to demonstrate that ideas of reason, in particular the pre-eminent political idea of public reason, is central to both their conceptions of the political condition.

This thesis is concerned with the power of ideas in political philosophy and practice. It argues firstly that Kant???s ideas of reason, as he originally defines them as regulative in the First Critique, play an important role in his political philosophy and his dynamic approach to politics. Secondly, because it is fundamentally concerned with political transition and improvement, Kant???s approach to politics is therefore one that has continuing relevance. Evidence for this is provided via an examination of Rawls??? political liberalism and the manner in which the idea of the reasonable fulfils the role of an idea of reason. The thesis begins with an examination of the regulative use of ideas of reason in the Dialectic of the First Critique: the ideas of soul, world and God become guides for practice, insofar as they are not bearers of truth but instead create essential conditions necessary for human life and meaning. Chapter Two then demonstrates how ideas of reason figure in Kant???s political texts. They condition politics by inspiring the practice of their objects, for example, the establishment of a rightful condition, the security of private property, the perpetuation of peace. That they look to the status quo in order to effect politics, demonstrates their concern with social progress. Chapter Three argues that publicity forms the primary political idea of reason as it enables the polity to use ideas of reason. Because publicity provides the test of efficient and rightful politics, we can say that it is through publicity that Kant???s politics is grounded. Chapter Four investigates Rawls??? political liberalism and observes that the primacy of the idea of the reasonable in his theory works according to a system of ideas of reason as proposed by Kant. Chapter Five then makes a final comparison between Kant and Rawls to demonstrate that ideas of reason, in particular the pre-eminent political idea of public reason, is central to both their conceptions of the political condition.

<p>Denna uppsats kretsar kring teologins behov av ett universellt sanningskriterium, och den motsägelse ett sådant skapar i en postmodern pluralism. Vidare presenteras och analyseras två svenska teologers sätt att behandla denna problematik. Båda teologerna formulerar ett etiskt universellt sanningskriterium men bemöter den motsägelse som det skapar på två olika sätt. Ann-Louise Eriksson förklarar varför motsägelsen tillåts genom att övertrumfa den med ett paradigmatiskt etiskt paradigm som hon hämtar från sin feministteologiska övertygelse. Jayne Svenungsson bemöter i sin tur motsägelsen genom att istället lyfta fram en motivering som hon hämtar inom det postmoderna tänkandet hos filosofen Lévinas. I hans filosofi finner hon en placering av etiken på en förontologisk nivå vilket gör att det etiska kravet både föregår den pluralistiska verkligheten och blir en förutsättning för den.</p>

<p> </p><p>Skärseldens uppkomst, komplicerad som den må vara, grundar sig i mångt och mycket på kyrkans behov att skapa ett mellantillstånd mellan helvetet och paradiset. Med hjälp av texter från bibeln, då främst Paulus brev, kunde den dogmatiska frågan om skärselden bryta igenom.</p><p>Skärselden är en medveten skapelse av det som kom att bli den katolska kyrkan.</p><p>Frågan om vart syndarna tog vägen efter döden besvarades i och med skapandet av skärselden. Människan behövde säkerställa sin väg upp till himlen och om hon inte lyckats göra det i livet så fick hon nu chansen att göra det efter döden. Själva tanken med straffet i skärselden är att kunna rena själen, till skillnad från helvetet där straffet är evinnerligt.</p><p> </p><p>I och med att tanken på skärselden föddes och så småningom institutionaliserades, började även bikten få en större betydelse. Bikten kom att bli en del av den botgöring som färdigställdes i skärselden. I och med att kyrkan erbjöd människan försoningsvägar genom bikt och bot så stärktes dess inflytande över människan, detta i stark relation till skärseldstanken. Kyrkan skapade bestämmelser i och med skärselden som gällde för livet efter detta.</p><p>Skärseldens uppkomst går också att härleda till det individuella behovet hos människan för jämställdhet. Det fick gensvar i frågan om det individuella straffet i skärselden.</p><p>Detta förstärkte också kyrkans roll som medlare genom bot och bikt, vilket i sig också stärkte kyrkans makt över folket då den ensam höll i nycklarna till himlen och helvetet.</p><p>Förutom behovet av jämställdhet så fanns även behovet av rättvisa snarare än behovet av vetskapen om att det kommer att ske en frälsning efter döden. Rättvisan gestaltade sig på så sätt att den rättade till de orättvisor och den ojämlikhet som ägde rum i det jordliga livet genom skärseldens kval i livet efter detta.</p><p> </p><p>Tron på skärselden spreds genom predikningar av präster för den stora massan. Tanken på skärselden födde en rädsla hos folket som översteg den de hyste för helvetet och värdet i att leva på jorden sammanlänkades med förskräckelsen i tanken på att lämna det.</p><p>Tanken på skärselden utvecklades i takt med samhället under medeltiden och genom skärselden uppkom också tankar som förändrade tanken på tid och rum då man upptäckte att det fanns mellanstadium mellan liv och död.</p><p> </p><p>Hoppet som kom med skärselden berodde också delvis på det faktum att själarna i skärselden var utsedda till slutgiltig frälsning detta trots att straffen i skärselden påminde om de i helvetet med den skillnaden att det var tidsbestämda. Tiden i skärselden påverkas inte bara av Guds nåd utan även av de personliga meriter man skaffat sig under sin tid på jorden och de offer som görs av släktingar och vänner till den avlidne genom kyrkan.</p><p> </p><p>Möjligheten för skärseldstankens fortlevnad påverkades mycket av människans föreställnings förmåga, vilken i sig påverkades av berättelser som handlade om skärselden vare sig de kom från präster eller lekmän. Eftersom kyrkan inte själv skapade en imaginär värld kring skärselden i sin trosartikel så var det upp till folket själva att skapa den bildliga delen. Detta gjordes delvis genom prästers exempel på upplevelser i skärselden, målningar föreställandes skärselden samt litterära verk som behandlade skärselden. De litterära verken kunde vara historiska, teologiska, filosofiska och skönlitterära. Ett av de verk som påverkade bilden av skärselden i allra högsta grad var Dante Alighieris <em>Divina Comedia.</em> Detta verk har kommit att bli till vilket man hänvisar allra mest när det gäller den imaginära föreställningen om skärselden.</p><p>Skärselden spelar en av de viktigaste rollerna i föreställningen om livet efter detta.</p><p> </p> / <p><p>The rise of purgatory, complicated as it may be, is much based upon the churches need to create a state between hell and paradise. With the help of writings from the bible, first and foremost the letters of Paul, the dogmatic question of purgatory was able to break through. Purgatory is a conscious creation made by what came to be the Catholic Church.</p><p>The question of where the sinners went after death was answered by the creation of purgatory. Man needed to secure its way to heaven an if she wasn’t able to do so in life, she was no given the chance to do so after death. The whole idea of the punishment in purgatory is to purify the soul, in contrast to hell where the punishment is eternal.</p><p> </p><p>As the idea of purgatory was born and later came to be institutionalised, the confession came to be of greater importance. The confession came to be a part of the penance that was completed in purgatory. Seeing that the church offered man a way of redemption through confession and penance, the churches influence over man also increased, this in a great relation to the idea of purgatory. With the idea of purgatory the church created regulations for the afterlife.</p><p>You can also derive the rise of purgatory to mans individual need for equality. The response to this need was met by the question of the individual punishment in purgatory.</p><p>This also strengthened the churches role as a intercessor by offering penance and confession, which in itself also empowered the churches influence over the people because the church alone held the keys to heaven and hell.</p><p>Except the peoples need for equality there was aloes a need for justice rather than a need for the knowledge of a salvation after death. Justice took form in the way that it corrected all the injustice and inequality that was made in the earthly life by the torments in purgatory in the afterlife.</p><p> </p><p>The belief in purgatory spread through the sermons held by priests to the people. The thought of purgatory bore a fear among the people that exceeded the fear of hell, and the value of living on earth was linked with the terror of the idea of leaving it.</p><p>The idea of purgatory evolved in pace with society during the middle ages and through purgatory new thoughts concerning time and place arose, because a intermediate state between life and death was found.</p><p> </p><p>Because of the fact the souls in purgatory was chosen for ultimate salvation, even though the punishments in purgatory resembled the ones in hell, hope also became connected with purgatory. The time spent in purgatory is not only affected by the grace of God, but also by the merits you have obtained during your time on earth and the sacrifices made by the church after requests from family and friends to the deceased.</p><p> </p><p>The continuation of the idea of purgatory was made possible by mans capacity to imagine it, which was influenced by the stories told about purgatory, be as it may told by priests or laymen. Because the church itself didn’t create a imaginary world surrounding purgatory in their article of faith, it was up to the people themselves to create it. This was partially made by priests examples of experiences from purgatory, paintings envisaging purgatory and literary works about purgatory. One literary work, which had a particular influence on the idea of purgatory, was Dante Alighieris <em>Divina Comedia. </em>This work has become the one to which the most references to purgatory are made.</p><p>Purgatory plays one of the most important parts in the conception about the afterlife.</p><p> </p></p>

Thesis (M.A. in Interdisciplinary Studies: Social and Political Thought)--Vanderbilt University, May 2007. / Title from title screen. Includes bibliographical references.

Skärseldens uppkomst, komplicerad som den må vara, grundar sig i mångt och mycket på kyrkans behov att skapa ett mellantillstånd mellan helvetet och paradiset. Med hjälp av texter från bibeln, då främst Paulus brev, kunde den dogmatiska frågan om skärselden bryta igenom. Skärselden är en medveten skapelse av det som kom att bli den katolska kyrkan. Frågan om vart syndarna tog vägen efter döden besvarades i och med skapandet av skärselden. Människan behövde säkerställa sin väg upp till himlen och om hon inte lyckats göra det i livet så fick hon nu chansen att göra det efter döden. Själva tanken med straffet i skärselden är att kunna rena själen, till skillnad från helvetet där straffet är evinnerligt.   I och med att tanken på skärselden föddes och så småningom institutionaliserades, började även bikten få en större betydelse. Bikten kom att bli en del av den botgöring som färdigställdes i skärselden. I och med att kyrkan erbjöd människan försoningsvägar genom bikt och bot så stärktes dess inflytande över människan, detta i stark relation till skärseldstanken. Kyrkan skapade bestämmelser i och med skärselden som gällde för livet efter detta. Skärseldens uppkomst går också att härleda till det individuella behovet hos människan för jämställdhet. Det fick gensvar i frågan om det individuella straffet i skärselden. Detta förstärkte också kyrkans roll som medlare genom bot och bikt, vilket i sig också stärkte kyrkans makt över folket då den ensam höll i nycklarna till himlen och helvetet. Förutom behovet av jämställdhet så fanns även behovet av rättvisa snarare än behovet av vetskapen om att det kommer att ske en frälsning efter döden. Rättvisan gestaltade sig på så sätt att den rättade till de orättvisor och den ojämlikhet som ägde rum i det jordliga livet genom skärseldens kval i livet efter detta.   Tron på skärselden spreds genom predikningar av präster för den stora massan. Tanken på skärselden födde en rädsla hos folket som översteg den de hyste för helvetet och värdet i att leva på jorden sammanlänkades med förskräckelsen i tanken på att lämna det. Tanken på skärselden utvecklades i takt med samhället under medeltiden och genom skärselden uppkom också tankar som förändrade tanken på tid och rum då man upptäckte att det fanns mellanstadium mellan liv och död.   Hoppet som kom med skärselden berodde också delvis på det faktum att själarna i skärselden var utsedda till slutgiltig frälsning detta trots att straffen i skärselden påminde om de i helvetet med den skillnaden att det var tidsbestämda. Tiden i skärselden påverkas inte bara av Guds nåd utan även av de personliga meriter man skaffat sig under sin tid på jorden och de offer som görs av släktingar och vänner till den avlidne genom kyrkan.   Möjligheten för skärseldstankens fortlevnad påverkades mycket av människans föreställnings förmåga, vilken i sig påverkades av berättelser som handlade om skärselden vare sig de kom från präster eller lekmän. Eftersom kyrkan inte själv skapade en imaginär värld kring skärselden i sin trosartikel så var det upp till folket själva att skapa den bildliga delen. Detta gjordes delvis genom prästers exempel på upplevelser i skärselden, målningar föreställandes skärselden samt litterära verk som behandlade skärselden. De litterära verken kunde vara historiska, teologiska, filosofiska och skönlitterära. Ett av de verk som påverkade bilden av skärselden i allra högsta grad var Dante Alighieris Divina Comedia. Detta verk har kommit att bli till vilket man hänvisar allra mest när det gäller den imaginära föreställningen om skärselden. Skärselden spelar en av de viktigaste rollerna i föreställningen om livet efter detta. / The rise of purgatory, complicated as it may be, is much based upon the churches need to create a state between hell and paradise. With the help of writings from the bible, first and foremost the letters of Paul, the dogmatic question of purgatory was able to break through. Purgatory is a conscious creation made by what came to be the Catholic Church. The question of where the sinners went after death was answered by the creation of purgatory. Man needed to secure its way to heaven an if she wasn’t able to do so in life, she was no given the chance to do so after death. The whole idea of the punishment in purgatory is to purify the soul, in contrast to hell where the punishment is eternal.   As the idea of purgatory was born and later came to be institutionalised, the confession came to be of greater importance. The confession came to be a part of the penance that was completed in purgatory. Seeing that the church offered man a way of redemption through confession and penance, the churches influence over man also increased, this in a great relation to the idea of purgatory. With the idea of purgatory the church created regulations for the afterlife. You can also derive the rise of purgatory to mans individual need for equality. The response to this need was met by the question of the individual punishment in purgatory. This also strengthened the churches role as a intercessor by offering penance and confession, which in itself also empowered the churches influence over the people because the church alone held the keys to heaven and hell. Except the peoples need for equality there was aloes a need for justice rather than a need for the knowledge of a salvation after death. Justice took form in the way that it corrected all the injustice and inequality that was made in the earthly life by the torments in purgatory in the afterlife.   The belief in purgatory spread through the sermons held by priests to the people. The thought of purgatory bore a fear among the people that exceeded the fear of hell, and the value of living on earth was linked with the terror of the idea of leaving it. The idea of purgatory evolved in pace with society during the middle ages and through purgatory new thoughts concerning time and place arose, because a intermediate state between life and death was found.   Because of the fact the souls in purgatory was chosen for ultimate salvation, even though the punishments in purgatory resembled the ones in hell, hope also became connected with purgatory. The time spent in purgatory is not only affected by the grace of God, but also by the merits you have obtained during your time on earth and the sacrifices made by the church after requests from family and friends to the deceased.   The continuation of the idea of purgatory was made possible by mans capacity to imagine it, which was influenced by the stories told about purgatory, be as it may told by priests or laymen. Because the church itself didn’t create a imaginary world surrounding purgatory in their article of faith, it was up to the people themselves to create it. This was partially made by priests examples of experiences from purgatory, paintings envisaging purgatory and literary works about purgatory. One literary work, which had a particular influence on the idea of purgatory, was Dante Alighieris Divina Comedia. This work has become the one to which the most references to purgatory are made. Purgatory plays one of the most important parts in the conception about the afterlife.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 221-226). Also available in print.