There is little academic research that examines whether there are differences between the ways probation officers and community members perceive the use of force on juvenile offenders. Failure to understand the differences in these perceptions negatively affected a probation department in California, which failed to address public concerns regarding the use of force in the juvenile hall, which resulted in a consent decree and a costly financial settlement. Using socialization theory as the foundation, the purpose of this study was to understand if there is a statistically significant difference between probation officers and civilians regarding their perceptions of use of force against juvenile offenders. Data were collected from a nonprobability sample of probation officers (n = 71) and community members (n = 125) in a Northern California community through an online survey that featured 5 scenarios of escalating behavior from a juvenile offender. Respondents were asked to evaluate whether the use of force was appropriate or excessive for each scenario. Data were analyzed using an independent samples t test and chi-square tests of independence. Findings indicated that, overall, there is a statistically significant difference in the perception of use of force between the 2 groups (p <. -4.04). Specifically, community members are more likely to have a lower threshold of tolerance for use of force than probation officers in 3 of the 5 scenarios in the survey. The positive social change implications of this study include recommendations to probation departments in California for enhanced collaboration and training with community members to better understand the expectations of each group related to use of force and the treatment of juvenile offenders.

Les rivières, lacs et aquifères transfrontaliers à travers la planète sont des catalyseurs de tension internationale. Le partage des ressources en eau entre les États est sujet à des défis de plus en plus aigus avec une demande en constante croissance et une variabilité de l’offre exacerbée par les changements climatiques. Cet enjeu bénéficie de peu d’encadrement juridique alors que les accords entre États riverains sont exceptionnels et peu efficaces et que le droit en la matière est controversé. Ce mémoire se veut une étude de trois méthodes d’analyse en droit international public des conflits dans le partage de ces cours d’eau partagés en utilisant l’exemple de la construction d’un ouvrage hydraulique d’envergure sur le Nil Bleu, dont l’Éthiopie, le Soudan et l’Égypte sont les tributaires. Une première méthode consiste à étudier les instruments régionaux qui ont tenté d’attribuer les eaux transfrontières et les droits de développement industriel. Une seconde approche propose d’examiner l’application du droit multilatéral et coutumier relatif aux utilisations des cours d'eau internationaux à des fins autres que la navigation. La troisième démarche vise à déterminer l’étendue et les bénéfices de l’obligation de coopérer en droit international public. Une fois ces trois méthodes appliquées, l’auteur arrive à la conclusion que les instruments régionaux du bassin du Nil et le droit international applicable, notamment codifié dans la Convention sur le droit relatif aux utilisations des cours d'eau internationaux à des fins autres que la navigation, n’offrent aucune solution juridique définitive en raison (i) de l’absence de force contraignante ou (ii) de conflits interprétatifs irréconciliables. Quant à elle, l’obligation de coopérer, quoi que limitée dans son étendue, est source d’optimisme. / Transboundary rivers, lakes and aquifers around the world are catalysts for international tension. The sharing of water resources between States is subject to increasingly acute challenges with a constantly growing demand and a variability of supply exacerbated by climate change. This issue benefits from limited legal guidance, while agreements between riparian states are exceptional and inefficient and the law in this area is controversial. This paper examines three methods of analysis in public international law of conflicts in the sharing of these shared watercourses, using the example of the construction of a major hydraulic structure on the Blue Nile, of which Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt are tributaries. A first approach is to examine the regional instruments that have attempted to allocate transboundary waters and industrial development rights. A second approach proposes to examine the application of multilateral and customary international law relating to the non-navigational uses of international watercourses. The third approach seeks to determine the scope and benefits of the duty to cooperate under public international law. After applying these three methods, the author concludes that the regional instruments of the Nile Basin and the applicable international law, notably codified in the Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, do not offer any firm legal solution due to (i) lack of binding force or (ii) irreconcilable interpretative conflicts. As for the obligation to cooperate, although limited in scope, it is a source of optimism.

From the Proceedings of the 1974 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 19-20, 1974, Flagstaff, Arizona / The doctrine of prior appropriation used in the arid western states has encouraged rapid exploitation of our natural water resources. Those who beneficially used the water first, regardless of type of use or efficiency, obtained a perpetual right to always be first. As frontiers for exploiting our natural resources shrink, the Appropriation Doctrine is changing under the stresses of the 1970's. Our water allocations system is changing as new water -use priorities emerge along with changing quality standards. Government at all levels, along with planners and engineers, must understand the institutional and legal constraints put on water development by our historic water rights system so that intelligent decisions can be made in developing and maintaining our natural water resources.