Cyanobacteria are common inhabitants of freshwater lakes and reservoirs throughout the world. Under favourable conditions, certain cyanobacteria can dominate the phytoplankton within a waterbody and form nuisance blooms. Case reports and anecdotal references dating from 1949 describe a range of illnesses associated with recreational exposure to cyanobacteria: hay fever-like symptoms, pruritic skin rashes and gastro-intestinal symptoms (the latter probably related to ingestion of water) are most frequently reported. Some papers give convincing descriptions of allergic responses to cyanobacteria; others describe more serious acute illnesses, with symptoms such as severe headache, pneumonia, fever, myalgia, vertigo and blistering in the mouth. A U.S. coroner recently found that a teenage boy died as a result of accidentally ingesting a neurotoxic cyanotoxin from a golf course pond; this is the first recorded human fatality attributed to recreational exposure to cyanobacteria. One of the main public health concerns with exposure to freshwater cyanobacteria relates to the understanding that some blooms produce toxins that specifically affect the liver or the central nervous system. The route of exposure for these toxins is oral, from accidental or deliberate ingestion of recreational water, and possibly by inhalation. Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are also reported to be putative cutaneous, gastrointestinal, respiratory and pyrogenic toxins. The aims of this project were to enhance the understanding of public health issues relating to recreational exposure to cyanobacteria by conducting epidemiological and laboratory-based toxicology studies. A prospective cohort study of 1,331 recreational water users was conducted at various sites in southern Queensland, the Myall Lakes area of New South Wales, and central Florida. The study design sought to make improvements over previously published epidemiological studies, in that an unexposed group was recruited from cyanobacteria-free waters, cyanobacterial toxins were measured in site water samples, and respondents were asked to rate the severity of reported symptoms. This study has shown an increased likelihood of symptom reporting amongst bathers exposed to high cyanobacterial cell density (measured by total cell surface area) compared to those exposed to low cyanobacteria-affected waters. Mild respiratory symptoms appear to be the predominant symptom category. A clinical dermatology study to examine delayed-contact hypersensitivity reactions to cyanobacterial extracts was conducted. The study groups were 20 patients presenting for diagnostic skin patch testing at the Royal Brisbane Hospital's dermatology outpatient clinic; a convenience sample of 20 individuals was recruited from outside the hospital as a control group. One patient developed unequivocal reactions to several cyanobacteria extracts, with no dose-response pattern seen, indicating that the reactions were allergic in nature. A mouse model of delayed-contact hypersensitivity, the mouse ear swelling test, has demonstrated that the purified toxin cylindrospermopsin, a highly water-soluble compound, is capable of producing cutaneous injury. Encrusting lesions were seen on abdominal skin during the induction phase of these experiments. Delayed-contact hypersensitivity reactions were also demonstrated with this toxin. LPS from two non-axenic cyanobacterial samples - Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and Microcystis aeruginosa - were extracted and purified. Thermoregulation studies were performed using a mouse model of rectal temperature measurement. Separate groups of mice were injected with these LPS extracts at two dose levels. Thermoregulation studies were also conducted with purified cyanobacterial toxins: microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin and anatoxin-a; cyanobacterial LPS samples purified by collaborators in Adelaide were also investigated for thermoregulation potential. These experiments have shown that the LPS extracts are weakly active when compared with responses to much lower doses of Escherichia coli LPS. Cylindrospermopsin also produces hypothermic responses in mice - comparable to pyrexia in larger mammals - although at a later stage than was seen with LPS extracts. Supplementing the experimental observations of the toxicology and immunotoxicology of cyanobacterial LPS are insights gained from beyond the cyanobacteria literature on the mechanisms of toxicity of different LPS structures. Cyanobacterial LPS was initially suggested to be toxic in the 1970s, at a time when lipid A, the active moiety of LPS, was thought to be identical across all Gram-negative bacteria. More recent work raises questions about the attribution of cutaneous and gastrointestinal illness to cyanobacterial LPS, with the understanding that some bacterial lipid A structures are LPS antagonists, LPS is not toxic by the oral route, and LPS is not reported as a toxin in the clinical dermatology literature. Gut-derived lipopolysaccharides, however, exert potent synergistic effects with a variety of xenobiotic hepatotoxins, and the well-known shock-like syndromes associated with severe cylindrospermopsin and microcystin poisoning deserve further scrutiny from the perspective of immunotoxicology.

Cyanobacteria are common inhabitants of freshwater lakes and reservoirs throughout the world. Under favourable conditions, certain cyanobacteria can dominate the phytoplankton within a waterbody and form nuisance blooms. Case reports and anecdotal references dating from 1949 describe a range of illnesses associated with recreational exposure to cyanobacteria: hay fever-like symptoms, pruritic skin rashes and gastro-intestinal symptoms (the latter probably related to ingestion of water) are most frequently reported. Some papers give convincing descriptions of allergic responses to cyanobacteria; others describe more serious acute illnesses, with symptoms such as severe headache, pneumonia, fever, myalgia, vertigo and blistering in the mouth. A U.S. coroner recently found that a teenage boy died as a result of accidentally ingesting a neurotoxic cyanotoxin from a golf course pond; this is the first recorded human fatality attributed to recreational exposure to cyanobacteria. One of the main public health concerns with exposure to freshwater cyanobacteria relates to the understanding that some blooms produce toxins that specifically affect the liver or the central nervous system. The route of exposure for these toxins is oral, from accidental or deliberate ingestion of recreational water, and possibly by inhalation. Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are also reported to be putative cutaneous, gastrointestinal, respiratory and pyrogenic toxins. The aims of this project were to enhance the understanding of public health issues relating to recreational exposure to cyanobacteria by conducting epidemiological and laboratory-based toxicology studies. A prospective cohort study of 1,331 recreational water users was conducted at various sites in southern Queensland, the Myall Lakes area of New South Wales, and central Florida. The study design sought to make improvements over previously published epidemiological studies, in that an unexposed group was recruited from cyanobacteria-free waters, cyanobacterial toxins were measured in site water samples, and respondents were asked to rate the severity of reported symptoms. This study has shown an increased likelihood of symptom reporting amongst bathers exposed to high cyanobacterial cell density (measured by total cell surface area) compared to those exposed to low cyanobacteria-affected waters. Mild respiratory symptoms appear to be the predominant symptom category. A clinical dermatology study to examine delayed-contact hypersensitivity reactions to cyanobacterial extracts was conducted. The study groups were 20 patients presenting for diagnostic skin patch testing at the Royal Brisbane Hospital's dermatology outpatient clinic; a convenience sample of 20 individuals was recruited from outside the hospital as a control group. One patient developed unequivocal reactions to several cyanobacteria extracts, with no dose-response pattern seen, indicating that the reactions were allergic in nature. A mouse model of delayed-contact hypersensitivity, the mouse ear swelling test, has demonstrated that the purified toxin cylindrospermopsin, a highly water-soluble compound, is capable of producing cutaneous injury. Encrusting lesions were seen on abdominal skin during the induction phase of these experiments. Delayed-contact hypersensitivity reactions were also demonstrated with this toxin. LPS from two non-axenic cyanobacterial samples - Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and Microcystis aeruginosa - were extracted and purified. Thermoregulation studies were performed using a mouse model of rectal temperature measurement. Separate groups of mice were injected with these LPS extracts at two dose levels. Thermoregulation studies were also conducted with purified cyanobacterial toxins: microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin and anatoxin-a; cyanobacterial LPS samples purified by collaborators in Adelaide were also investigated for thermoregulation potential. These experiments have shown that the LPS extracts are weakly active when compared with responses to much lower doses of Escherichia coli LPS. Cylindrospermopsin also produces hypothermic responses in mice - comparable to pyrexia in larger mammals - although at a later stage than was seen with LPS extracts. Supplementing the experimental observations of the toxicology and immunotoxicology of cyanobacterial LPS are insights gained from beyond the cyanobacteria literature on the mechanisms of toxicity of different LPS structures. Cyanobacterial LPS was initially suggested to be toxic in the 1970s, at a time when lipid A, the active moiety of LPS, was thought to be identical across all Gram-negative bacteria. More recent work raises questions about the attribution of cutaneous and gastrointestinal illness to cyanobacterial LPS, with the understanding that some bacterial lipid A structures are LPS antagonists, LPS is not toxic by the oral route, and LPS is not reported as a toxin in the clinical dermatology literature. Gut-derived lipopolysaccharides, however, exert potent synergistic effects with a variety of xenobiotic hepatotoxins, and the well-known shock-like syndromes associated with severe cylindrospermopsin and microcystin poisoning deserve further scrutiny from the perspective of immunotoxicology.

Cyanobacteria are common inhabitants of freshwater lakes and reservoirs throughout the world. Under favourable conditions, certain cyanobacteria can dominate the phytoplankton within a waterbody and form nuisance blooms. Case reports and anecdotal references dating from 1949 describe a range of illnesses associated with recreational exposure to cyanobacteria: hay fever-like symptoms, pruritic skin rashes and gastro-intestinal symptoms (the latter probably related to ingestion of water) are most frequently reported. Some papers give convincing descriptions of allergic responses to cyanobacteria; others describe more serious acute illnesses, with symptoms such as severe headache, pneumonia, fever, myalgia, vertigo and blistering in the mouth. A U.S. coroner recently found that a teenage boy died as a result of accidentally ingesting a neurotoxic cyanotoxin from a golf course pond; this is the first recorded human fatality attributed to recreational exposure to cyanobacteria. One of the main public health concerns with exposure to freshwater cyanobacteria relates to the understanding that some blooms produce toxins that specifically affect the liver or the central nervous system. The route of exposure for these toxins is oral, from accidental or deliberate ingestion of recreational water, and possibly by inhalation. Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are also reported to be putative cutaneous, gastrointestinal, respiratory and pyrogenic toxins. The aims of this project were to enhance the understanding of public health issues relating to recreational exposure to cyanobacteria by conducting epidemiological and laboratory-based toxicology studies. A prospective cohort study of 1,331 recreational water users was conducted at various sites in southern Queensland, the Myall Lakes area of New South Wales, and central Florida. The study design sought to make improvements over previously published epidemiological studies, in that an unexposed group was recruited from cyanobacteria-free waters, cyanobacterial toxins were measured in site water samples, and respondents were asked to rate the severity of reported symptoms. This study has shown an increased likelihood of symptom reporting amongst bathers exposed to high cyanobacterial cell density (measured by total cell surface area) compared to those exposed to low cyanobacteria-affected waters. Mild respiratory symptoms appear to be the predominant symptom category. A clinical dermatology study to examine delayed-contact hypersensitivity reactions to cyanobacterial extracts was conducted. The study groups were 20 patients presenting for diagnostic skin patch testing at the Royal Brisbane Hospital's dermatology outpatient clinic; a convenience sample of 20 individuals was recruited from outside the hospital as a control group. One patient developed unequivocal reactions to several cyanobacteria extracts, with no dose-response pattern seen, indicating that the reactions were allergic in nature. A mouse model of delayed-contact hypersensitivity, the mouse ear swelling test, has demonstrated that the purified toxin cylindrospermopsin, a highly water-soluble compound, is capable of producing cutaneous injury. Encrusting lesions were seen on abdominal skin during the induction phase of these experiments. Delayed-contact hypersensitivity reactions were also demonstrated with this toxin. LPS from two non-axenic cyanobacterial samples - Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and Microcystis aeruginosa - were extracted and purified. Thermoregulation studies were performed using a mouse model of rectal temperature measurement. Separate groups of mice were injected with these LPS extracts at two dose levels. Thermoregulation studies were also conducted with purified cyanobacterial toxins: microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin and anatoxin-a; cyanobacterial LPS samples purified by collaborators in Adelaide were also investigated for thermoregulation potential. These experiments have shown that the LPS extracts are weakly active when compared with responses to much lower doses of Escherichia coli LPS. Cylindrospermopsin also produces hypothermic responses in mice - comparable to pyrexia in larger mammals - although at a later stage than was seen with LPS extracts. Supplementing the experimental observations of the toxicology and immunotoxicology of cyanobacterial LPS are insights gained from beyond the cyanobacteria literature on the mechanisms of toxicity of different LPS structures. Cyanobacterial LPS was initially suggested to be toxic in the 1970s, at a time when lipid A, the active moiety of LPS, was thought to be identical across all Gram-negative bacteria. More recent work raises questions about the attribution of cutaneous and gastrointestinal illness to cyanobacterial LPS, with the understanding that some bacterial lipid A structures are LPS antagonists, LPS is not toxic by the oral route, and LPS is not reported as a toxin in the clinical dermatology literature. Gut-derived lipopolysaccharides, however, exert potent synergistic effects with a variety of xenobiotic hepatotoxins, and the well-known shock-like syndromes associated with severe cylindrospermopsin and microcystin poisoning deserve further scrutiny from the perspective of immunotoxicology.

No description available.

No description available.

O trabalho teve como foco o estudo da balneabilidade em duas praias de rios do Estado de São Paulo Balneário Reino das Águas Claras no Rio Piracuama (Pindamonhangaba, UGRHI 2) e Cachoeira das Emas no Rio Mogi-Guaçu (Pirassununga, UGRHI 9) buscando correlacionar os níveis de concentração de indicadores fecais na água com níveis de precipitação próximos e a montante da praia. O objetivo principal foi desenvolver e aplicar ferramentas de predição das condições de balneabilidade, buscando analisar e comparar os resultados obtidos nas duas praias de estudo. Essas ferramentas baseiam-se em Níveis Limiares de Precipitação (Rain Threshold Levels) e modelos estatísticos, conforme metodologias descritas principalmente em estudos publicados pela United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) e pela United States Geological Survey (USGS). Foram utilizados dados das redes de monitoramento da Companhia Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo (CETESB) e do Departamento de Águas e Energia do Estado de São Paulo (DAEE), do início de 2009 ao final de 2012. Em cada praia, foram desenvolvidas ferramentas de predição para aplicação no período seco (abril a setembro) e no período chuvoso (outubro a março), com base nos níveis de precipitação acumulada em 24, 48 e 72 horas que apresentaram correlação significativa com os níveis de indicadores fecais na água. Foi considerado um período de validação (ano de 2012) independente à calibração (2009 a 2011) dos modelos. As ferramentas desenvolvidas para a praia de Cachoeira das Emas mostraram-se mais complexas do que as da praia de Balneário Reino das Águas Claras, por estar inserida em bacia hidrográfica de maiores dimensões e considerar dados de várias estações pluviométricas nos modelos de regressão. As correlações significantes (p<0,05) verificadas entre as concentrações de indicadores fecais na água e os diferentes níveis acumulados de precipitação foram positivas em ambas as praias. Pelo fato das redes de monitoramento possuir objetivos distintos, nem todos os eventos de precipitação que ocorreram durante o período de estudo puderam ser relacionados com um valor de concentração de indicador fecal na água, pois resultados microbiológicos pareados com níveis nulos ou insignificantes de precipitação não foram considerados, justamente pelo fato das ferramentas serem baseadas em chuva. As diferentes ferramentas desenvolvidas apresentaram níveis variados de especificidade e sensibilidade, ou seja, a capacidade de prever corretamente as situações de boa e má condição de balneabilidade, respectivamente. Concluiu-se que existe potencial para aplicação dessas ferramentas, porém é preciso um esforço de monitoramento conjunto dos parâmetros modelados para obter a quantidade necessária de dados necessários à boa calibração e validação, o que, consequentemente, demandaria recursos adicionais. O cenário ideal para empregá-las seria em praias bastante frequentadas num determinado período do ano, sendo a principal fonte de poluição identificada como difusa, consequente do escoamento de drenagem. A fim de melhorar seu desempenho, é possível empregar outras variáveis ambientais além de níveis de precipitação, como por exemplo, a turbidez, a vazão e o nível dos rios, desde que sejam monitorados sistematicamente junto com as condições de balneabilidade. / This study was focused on the recreational water quality at two beaches located on rivers in the State of São Paulo, Brazil Balneário Reino das Águas Claras at Piracuama River (City of Pindamonhangaba, UGRHI 2) and Cachoeira das Emas at Mogi-Guacú River (City of Pirassununga, UGRHI 9) in order to correlate concentration levels of faecal indicators in water with rainfall levels near the beach and upstream in the watershed. The main objective was the development and evaluation of predictive tools for bathing water conditions, seeking to analyze and compare the results obtained for both beaches considered in the study. These tools are based on rain threshold levels and statistical models, which methodologies are described mainly in studies published by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Data used were collected from the monitoring networks of the State of São Paulo environmental agency (CETESB) and department of water and energy (DAEE), from 2009 to 2012. At each beach, predictive tools were developed for the dry season (April to September) and the rainy season (October to March), based on levels of accumulated rainfall in 24, 48 and 72 hours significantly correlated with concentrations of faecal indicators in water. Model development considered a validation period (year of 2012) independent from the calibration period (2009-2011). Predictive tools developed for the Cachoeira das Emas were more complex than those for the Balneário Reino das Águas Claras, because the beach is inserted into a larger watershed and its regression models considered data from various rainfall stations. The significant correlations (p value<0,05) observed between concentrations of faecal indicators in water and accumulated levels of rainfall were positive for both beaches. Because the monitoring networks have different objectives, not all rainfall events that occurred during the period of the study were related to a concentration value of faecal indicator in the water, as microbiological results paired with null or insignificant levels of precipitation were not considered, precisely because the predictive tools are based on rainfall. The different tools developed showed varying levels of specificity and sensitivity, i.e., the ability to correctly predict good and bad conditions of bathing. The conclusion is that there is a potential for application of predictive tools, however, additional effort is required on monitoring systematically the models parameters in order to obtain the necessary amount of data to achieve a good calibration and validation of the models; consequently, additional resources are required. The ideal scenario would be using the model during a certain period of the year, at beaches quite frequented, for which diffuse pollution is the main contribution, such as the drainage runoff. Aiming to improve the performance of this type of tool, one can also employ other environmental variables besides precipitation levels, such as turbidity, flow rate and river level, as long as these parameters are systematically monitored with the bathing water conditions.

O trabalho teve como foco o estudo da balneabilidade em duas praias de rios do Estado de São Paulo Balneário Reino das Águas Claras no Rio Piracuama (Pindamonhangaba, UGRHI 2) e Cachoeira das Emas no Rio Mogi-Guaçu (Pirassununga, UGRHI 9) buscando correlacionar os níveis de concentração de indicadores fecais na água com níveis de precipitação próximos e a montante da praia. O objetivo principal foi desenvolver e aplicar ferramentas de predição das condições de balneabilidade, buscando analisar e comparar os resultados obtidos nas duas praias de estudo. Essas ferramentas baseiam-se em Níveis Limiares de Precipitação (Rain Threshold Levels) e modelos estatísticos, conforme metodologias descritas principalmente em estudos publicados pela United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) e pela United States Geological Survey (USGS). Foram utilizados dados das redes de monitoramento da Companhia Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo (CETESB) e do Departamento de Águas e Energia do Estado de São Paulo (DAEE), do início de 2009 ao final de 2012. Em cada praia, foram desenvolvidas ferramentas de predição para aplicação no período seco (abril a setembro) e no período chuvoso (outubro a março), com base nos níveis de precipitação acumulada em 24, 48 e 72 horas que apresentaram correlação significativa com os níveis de indicadores fecais na água. Foi considerado um período de validação (ano de 2012) independente à calibração (2009 a 2011) dos modelos. As ferramentas desenvolvidas para a praia de Cachoeira das Emas mostraram-se mais complexas do que as da praia de Balneário Reino das Águas Claras, por estar inserida em bacia hidrográfica de maiores dimensões e considerar dados de várias estações pluviométricas nos modelos de regressão. As correlações significantes (p<0,05) verificadas entre as concentrações de indicadores fecais na água e os diferentes níveis acumulados de precipitação foram positivas em ambas as praias. Pelo fato das redes de monitoramento possuir objetivos distintos, nem todos os eventos de precipitação que ocorreram durante o período de estudo puderam ser relacionados com um valor de concentração de indicador fecal na água, pois resultados microbiológicos pareados com níveis nulos ou insignificantes de precipitação não foram considerados, justamente pelo fato das ferramentas serem baseadas em chuva. As diferentes ferramentas desenvolvidas apresentaram níveis variados de especificidade e sensibilidade, ou seja, a capacidade de prever corretamente as situações de boa e má condição de balneabilidade, respectivamente. Concluiu-se que existe potencial para aplicação dessas ferramentas, porém é preciso um esforço de monitoramento conjunto dos parâmetros modelados para obter a quantidade necessária de dados necessários à boa calibração e validação, o que, consequentemente, demandaria recursos adicionais. O cenário ideal para empregá-las seria em praias bastante frequentadas num determinado período do ano, sendo a principal fonte de poluição identificada como difusa, consequente do escoamento de drenagem. A fim de melhorar seu desempenho, é possível empregar outras variáveis ambientais além de níveis de precipitação, como por exemplo, a turbidez, a vazão e o nível dos rios, desde que sejam monitorados sistematicamente junto com as condições de balneabilidade. / This study was focused on the recreational water quality at two beaches located on rivers in the State of São Paulo, Brazil Balneário Reino das Águas Claras at Piracuama River (City of Pindamonhangaba, UGRHI 2) and Cachoeira das Emas at Mogi-Guacú River (City of Pirassununga, UGRHI 9) in order to correlate concentration levels of faecal indicators in water with rainfall levels near the beach and upstream in the watershed. The main objective was the development and evaluation of predictive tools for bathing water conditions, seeking to analyze and compare the results obtained for both beaches considered in the study. These tools are based on rain threshold levels and statistical models, which methodologies are described mainly in studies published by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Data used were collected from the monitoring networks of the State of São Paulo environmental agency (CETESB) and department of water and energy (DAEE), from 2009 to 2012. At each beach, predictive tools were developed for the dry season (April to September) and the rainy season (October to March), based on levels of accumulated rainfall in 24, 48 and 72 hours significantly correlated with concentrations of faecal indicators in water. Model development considered a validation period (year of 2012) independent from the calibration period (2009-2011). Predictive tools developed for the Cachoeira das Emas were more complex than those for the Balneário Reino das Águas Claras, because the beach is inserted into a larger watershed and its regression models considered data from various rainfall stations. The significant correlations (p value<0,05) observed between concentrations of faecal indicators in water and accumulated levels of rainfall were positive for both beaches. Because the monitoring networks have different objectives, not all rainfall events that occurred during the period of the study were related to a concentration value of faecal indicator in the water, as microbiological results paired with null or insignificant levels of precipitation were not considered, precisely because the predictive tools are based on rainfall. The different tools developed showed varying levels of specificity and sensitivity, i.e., the ability to correctly predict good and bad conditions of bathing. The conclusion is that there is a potential for application of predictive tools, however, additional effort is required on monitoring systematically the models parameters in order to obtain the necessary amount of data to achieve a good calibration and validation of the models; consequently, additional resources are required. The ideal scenario would be using the model during a certain period of the year, at beaches quite frequented, for which diffuse pollution is the main contribution, such as the drainage runoff. Aiming to improve the performance of this type of tool, one can also employ other environmental variables besides precipitation levels, such as turbidity, flow rate and river level, as long as these parameters are systematically monitored with the bathing water conditions.