Thesis (M.S.)--Eastern Illinois University, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 54-58).

Thesis (MScEng)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Current global trends in government, industry and popular OpInIOn indicate that recycling will become essential in the future. Vacuum pyrolysis is a new technology with many recycling applications that have not yet been investigated. This study is a contribution towards the better understanding of the vacuum pyrolysis process and also towards finding possible economically favourable recycling applications. A batch operated tube furnace, which allowed the controlled heating of different materials in a vacuum, was designed and built. The gases and vapours passed though a series of progressively colder vacuum traps, condensing the vapours for further study. The products from the process are charcoal, oil, an aqueous phase and noncondensable gases. The charcoal and oils' possible economic values (R2500- R5000/ton of charcoal, while the plant product oil can be sold as a low sulphur fuel, with a retail value of approximately R1.42 per litre) were determined along with the oils' chemical composition. Several possible feedstocks were studied, including intruder plant species, leather wastes, sewage sludge and a simplified representation of municipal solid waste. The three intruder plants studied were Kraalbos (Galenia africane), Scholtzbos (pteronia pallens) and Asbos (Psilocaolon absimile). These plants yielded 40%, 42% and 48% (charcoal per kilogram dry feedstock) respectively at their maximum oil yield temperatures of 380°C, 480°C and 450°C respectively. The maximum oil yields were 36%, 32% and 20% respectively (also on a dry feedstock basis). It was found that the plants with ash contents below 10% yielded commercially competitive charcoal, and that all of the plants yielded oils with heating values in the range of 24MJ/kg, containing several high value compounds. Asbos was the only plant that did not produce usable charcoal, as its ash content of 40% was double that of commercial charcoals. The leather wastes represent a previously unrecognised application of the technology that could bring huge financial rewards to the tanning industry and could provide a more environmentally friendly alternative to lined landfilling. The cost of landfilling for a medium sized tannery can be as high as RIOOO 000 a year. Apart from the volume reductions achieved (up to a factor 8) it was found that landfilling might be totally avoided if the chrome contained in the charcoal product could be extracted and reused. Sewage sludge was studied, as it is a hazardous waste that requires costly disposal in a lined landfill. It was revealed that volume reductions of up to a factor 3.5 were possible with corresponding charcoal and oil yields of 40% and 38% respectively at 500°C. It was also found that the charcoal product could be used as compost, which would then turn a costly waste into a commodity product. The oil from both the leather and sewage sludge had high energy values (26.7MJ/kg and 30.9MJ/kg respectively) and might either be sold as a bunker fuel or used in the process as a make-up heat source. The value of the oil depends on the problems posed by the oils' high nitrogen content (±5%-6%). A further study was also made of the co-pyrolysis of PVC and wood to determine the interaction between the feedstocks and as a simplified representation of municipal solid wastes. It was found that the HCI released from the PVC caused acid hydrolysis of the wood and led to lower charcoal (reduced from 32.6% to 29.7% on dry feedstock basis, at the maximum co-pyrolysis oil yield temperature of 460°C) and much higher oil yields (42.4% for the co-pyrolysis compared to 23.6% for the plant material at 460°C). An existing computer program (CEA by Gordan and McBride) was also employed in order to find explanations for some of the vacuum pyrolysis results. Although large specialist vacuum pyrolysis plants have been designed in the past (mostly to dispose of used tyre waste) it will be necessary to determine the process economics for small-scale applications if the technology is to be applied at the source of the problem. Overall vacuum pyrolysis appears to be a very promising technology that could solve many waste problems in an environmentally friendly and economically beneficial manner. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hedendaagse neigmgs in regenng, industrie en populêre opirue toon dat hergebruikstegnologieë al hoe meer noodsaaklik sal word in die toekoms. Vakuum pirolise is 'n nuwe tegnologie met vele moonlike hergebruik toepassings wat nog nie bestudeer is nie. Hierdie studie is 'n bydrae tot 'n dieper begrip van vakuum pirolise en ook tot die verdere soeke na nuwe toepassings vir die tegnologie. 'n Enkellading buis-oond, wat die beheerde verhitting van verskillende materiale in vakuum toegelaat het, is ontwerp en gebou. Die gevormde gasse en dampe het deur 'n progressief kouer reeks van vakuum valle beweeg waar dit vir verdere studie gekondenseer en opgevang is. Die produkte van die proses is houtskool, olie, 'n waterryke fase en nie-kondenseerbare gasse. Die houtskool en olie se moontlike waarde (R2500-R5000/ton houtskool, terwyl die plant produk olie verkoop kan word as 'n lae swael verhittings olie met 'n kleinmaat kommersieële verkoopswaarde van R1.42/1), saam met die chemiese samestelling van die olie fase, is bepaal. Die vakuum pirolise van verskeie moontlike voerstowwe is bestudeer, insluitende indringerplante, leerafval, rioolslyk en 'n vereenvoudigde voorstelling van munisipale afval. Die drie plant spesies wat bestudeer is, is: Kraalbos (Galenia africane), Scholtzbos (Pteronia pal/ens) en Asbos (Psilocaolon absimile). Die plante het opbrengste van 40%, 42% en 48% (houtskool per kilogram droë voerstof) onderskeidelik gelewer by elk van die plante se maksimum olie opbrengs temperature van 380°C, 480°C en 450°C onderskeidelik. Die maksimum olie opbrengste was 36%, 32%, 20% (olie per kilogram droë voerstof) vir die onderskeie plante. Daar is bevind dat die plante met as-inhoude van minder as 10% kommersieel kompeterende houtskool gelewer het. Dit is ook gevind dat die olie van al die plante verbrandingswaardes in die orde van 24MJ/kg lewer en dat die olies ook verskeie waardevolle chemikalieë bevat. Asbos was die enigste van die bestudeerde plante wat nie maklik bruikbare houtskool gelewer het nie. Die Asbos houtskool was minder bruikbaar as gevolg van die uiters hoë as-inhoude van tot 40% met gevolglike lae energie waarde. Die vakuum pirolise van leerafval is 'n toepassing wat nog nie voorheen ondersoek is nie. Dit kan moontlik lei tot groot finansiële voordele vir die leerlooi industrie en kan ook 'n meer omgewingsvriendelike alternatief tot belynde afval storting bied. Die koste verbonde aan die storting van leer afval van 'n medium grootte looiery kan tot R1000 000 per jaar beloop. Behalwe vir die volume verkleining behaal (tot 'n faktor 8), is daar ook gevind dat afvalstorting totaal vermy kan word as die hoë hoeveelheid chroom (12% van die houtskool) uit die houtskool verwyder en hergebruik kan word. Rioolslyk is ook bestudeer, siende dat dit ook 'n probleem afvalstof is wat teen groot koste gestort moet word. Die studie het getoon dat volume verkleinings van tot 'n faktor 3.5 en houtskool en olie opbrengste van onderskeidelik 40% en 38% by 500°C behaal kan word. 'n Ondersoek van die houtskool het getoon dat dit gebruik kan word as 'n kompos, wat dan sal beteken dat 'n probleem afvalstof verander word na 'n omgewingsvriendelike en ekonomies waardevolle produk. Die olie van beide die rioolslyk en leer het hoë energiewaardes (26.7MJ/kg en 30.9MJ/kg onderskeidelik) en kan verkoop word as verbrandingsolie of gebruik word in die vakuum pirolise proses as 'n hulp-hitte bron. Die gebruikswaarde van die olie sal baie afhang van die probleme wat deur die uiters hoë stikstof-inhoud (±5%-6%) veroorsaak gaan word. 'n Verdere studie van die ko-pirolise van PVC en hout is ook gedoen om die interaksie tussen die afvalstowwe te bestudeer en ook om as 'n vereenvoudigde voorstelling van munisipale afval te dien. Daar is gevind dat die HCI wat afkom as PVC verhit word, suur hidrolise van die houtstrukture veroorsaak en lei tot laer houtskool (verminder van 32.6% na 29.7% droë voerstofbasis, by die maksimum olie opbrengs temperatuur van 460°C) en veel hoër olie opbrengste (42.4% vir die kopirolise in vergelyking met 23.6% vir die plant materiaal by 460°C). 'n Studie van die energie wat verkry kan word uit die olie en houtskool het getoon dat 16% tot 28% meer energie verteenwoordig word deur die produkte per kilogram droë voerstof vir die ko-pirolise proses bo normale vakuum pirolise. Alhoewel groot spesialis vakuum pirolise aanlegte in die verlede ontwerp is (meestal vir die verwerking van gebruikte motor buitebande) sal dit nogstans noodsaaklik wees om die winsgewindheid van kleinermaat prosesse te bestudeer sodat vakuum pirolise by die oorsprong van die afvalstoftoegepas kan word. Dit blyk dat vakuum pirolise 'n baie belowende tegnologie IS wat verskeie afval probleme op 'n omgewingsvriendelike en ekonomies winsgewinde wyse kan oplos.

The problems of waste disposal in the tanning industry are unique in that the effluents are highly saline, have a high organic loading and contain heavy metals. Methods are available for the safe treatment and disposal of the latter two components, but the saline component requires the expensive outlay of evaporation ponds. This study has identified a possible use for the saline effluents, turning a problematic waste product into a potentially valuable by-product. A range of tannery effluents were identified and tested for their suitability for the mass cultivation of Dunaliella salina (bardawil strain). The bardawil strain was preferred over a local isolate because of its higher production of β-carotene. Ponded tannery effluents and combined processes effluent proved unsuitable for realistic propagation of the alga. Anaerobic digestion of combined processes effluent did not improve its suitability significantly. Anaerobic digestion of hide-soak effluent may remove persistent antimicrobial agents which influence algal growth, but its contribution to enhancing algal growth is equivocal. Undigested hide-soak effluent lacking in persistent antimicrobial agents was found to be an ideal culture medium, as no additional nutrients needed to be added. Significantly higher biomass was obtained in this effluent compared to chemically defined media. Induction of β-carotene was achieved in nitrogen-deficient defined media after culture in tannery effluent. This suggests that a two-stage system using hide-soak effluent for cell propagation and nitrogen deficient media for β-carotene induction, could be possible for the mass cultivation of D. salina for β-carotene production.

Thesis (BTech (Surface Design))Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2010 / The purpose of this research is to explore and create an understanding of how architectural structures. that adhere to deconstructivist design principles, can inspire the reconstruction of second-hand school fumiture and scrap metal. The planned pieces will continue to create an awareness of sustainability, by designing for reuse. These functional fumiture pieces of low tables and chairs will be handcrafted, appealing to a niche market, or specific spaces and they will act as expressions of contradiction. This research will act as an addition to a body of knowledge, where I will primarily focus on contradicting the traditional form and aesthetic of furniture design. I have decided to create these functional pieces to express a new possible direction of furniture design. The study context is a potential confrontational experience in that I want to challenge the conventional form and aesthetics of fumiture design. These pieces of fumiture will be placed in a niche market where they will exist as one-offs that are not produced for mass-consumption, as they will be individually hand-erafted. These days more and more people are attempting to live in a more sustainable manner by practicing to reduce our consumption of products and resources; reuse that which we have disposed of and forgotten as consumers and to recycle waste products and transform them into a feasible afterlife (Martin, 2010). The theory is focused on Sohaill Inayatullah's theory of "Futures Thinking", and this .theory is further supported by Victor Margolin's study of changing existing situations into preferred ones. The research further reflects on Jacques Derrida's theory of deconstruction, and this research is further supported by the theory of sustainability, by designing for reuse, with a focus on Ezio Manzini. Therefore, my research study is concerned with confronting and challenging the conformity that the form of furniture and its aesthetic adhere to.

Ph.D. (Chemistry) / South Africa has a background in which the regulatory system has major limitations, especially with reference to an integrated approach to waste and pollution. The situation has been rectified with the promulgation of new legislation that will approach pollution and waste in an integrated and holistic manner. This new approach also emphasizes that waste should be minimised at all levels, including the household level. The aim of this study has been to determine the influence of waste recovery and organic recycling, at household level, on the waste stream within an urban area in South Africa. The following research aims set for this study were: • To discuss the development of waste minimisation, with specific reference to the South African situation and legislative framework. • To investigate waste recovery and organic recycling as a waste management strategy by reviewing literature. • To investigate a waste recovery and organic recycling strategy within a local transitional council by making use of an empirical study. The most important conclusions gained from reviewing the literature are the following: • South Africa has adopted the Integrated Waste Management Approach, which includes recovery and recycling at source as well as organic recycling. • International case studies, incorporating both developed and developing countries, indicate that organic recycling and waste recovery programmes could be implemented successfully in South Africa with resulting benefits for the communities, service providers and the environment. The aim of the empirical component was to determine the following: • The effect of implementation of organic recycling and waste recovery measures on the waste stream at households level. • The comparative effect of organic recycling and waste recovery rates between a training and non-training group. • The respondent's experiences of the organic recycling.

This report presents the findings of a research project whereby the initiatives and opportunities for municipal solid waste (MSW) recycling were investigated in the town of Simunye, in Swaziland with a view to establish how recycling, in particular household waste recycling, can be improved through stakeholder involvement and community participation during the planning and implementation of a sustainable system for household waste recycling in Simunye. The reason for focusing on household waste was because source separation of household waste was identified as a potential area for improving efficiencies and cutting costs by the local authority. It was deemed necessary to conduct research because there was a history of failure in respect of household recycling. In 2006 an initiative, by the local authority, for separating household waste at source had ended up in failure. The participation rates of the households turned out to be very low even though they had been issued, free of charge, some plastic bags for sorting the waste. Some of the households were found using the bags for other purposes rather than recycling. As a result, the initiative had to be suspended (White, 2010). There is a new move to revive the project in order to cut costs and minimize wastages. This time around the local authority is determined for the new project to be a success story. Since the underlying causes for the failure of the previous initiative were never investigated formally (Khumalo, 2010), the starting point would be to identify and try to eliminate all the potential barriers to recycling through a consultative process to start with.

This qualitative study investigates Waste services provided by community-based enterprises in the Ngombe peri-urban settlement area - Lusaka, Zambia. The aim of the study was to identify and analyze the factors that contribute to illegal dumping of solid waste in the said peri-urban settlement area. The research objectives were as follows: To explore the capability of the community-based enterprises to effectively manage their enterprises in relation to the provision of solid waste services to the residents of the said settlement, To identify and evaluate the solid waste services provided by the community-based enterprises, and To make recommendations for the improvement of solid waste service provision and utilisation based on the findings of the study. The method of data collection for the above listed objectives was a literature study and focus group interviews. In order to achieve the said objectives of the study, the researcher opted for a qualitative research design – utilizing the contextual, descriptive, inductive and deductive approaches. The research population comprised the community-based enterprises involved in the provision of solid waste services in the Ngombe settlement area namely Kutwano and Tiyende Pamodzi Waste Enterprises. The purposive sample method was used for the selection of the focus group. The focus group discussions were captured by means of an audiotape and note-taking. The interviews were transcribed verbatim, within 24 hours of data capturing. Data analysis followed the five steps of Powell and Renner (2003, pp,1-6), namely: familiarization, identifying a thematic framework, categorization (coding or indexing) of data, identifying patterns and connections within and between categories (relationships), and interpretation (bringing it all together). The researcher adhered to the relevant ethical considerations and the principles of trustworthiness, namely: credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability throughout the study. In exploring the capability of the two community-based enterprises to effectively manage their enterprises in relation to the provision of solid waste services to the residents of the said settlement it was found that community-based enterprises do not have the capability to provide adequate solid waste services. This is due to inadequate leadership and entrepreneurship skills of the community-based enterprises management committee members, non-payment of solid waste collection fees by the majority of households and inadequate legal enforcement by the Lusaka City Council’s Waste Management Unit. In identifying and evaluating the solid waste services provided by the community-based enterprises it was found that solid waste services provided by community-based enterprises were inadequate. This is due to the type of equipment (push carts) used for primary solid waste collection that does not carter for other forms of solid waste like construction waste; inappropriate solid waste storage containers (25kg maize meal bags) which do not allow storage of solid waste in a sanitary manner (non-leak proof, accessible to rats, flies and cockroaches and rodents); restriction on the type of solid waste that community-based enterprises should collect (in relation to the specified solid waste storage container, 25kg maize meal bags) and the delay of secondary solid waste collection by Lusaka City Council’s Waste Management Unit. On the basis of the findings of the study, a number of recommendations are being made, which, if implemented effectively, should improve the provision and utilisation of solid waste services within the study area. Such an improvement should lead to a higher level of environmental cleanliness, and ultimately to better health standards of the people living within the area.

This document is submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree: Master of Architecture [Professional] at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, in the year 2014. Supervised by Professor Diaan van der Westhuizen / High levels of unemployment are a reality in many of the urban areas of South Africa. Poverty and hardship compel many of the unemployed to venture into the urban informal economy in order to survive. The South African government have found new ways of creating employment opportunities, one of which is within the recycling industry. There is an increased demand for minimizing mankind’s environmental footprint. Glass is a material that has been used for centuries and has the ability to be recycled infinitely without losing its quality (Marson, n.d). This together with the need for glass amongst consumers and the endlessly recycling nature of glass makes glass recycling a significant sustainable measure in considering environmental impacts (2011, 2012 Annual Review: Glass Recycling Company). Despite these properties, glass continues to be an undervalued material that can utilize low technology in its recycling process. This study aimed at investigating the formal and informal recycling economy within the city of Johannesburg by providing the opportunity for the Waste Reclaimers (Trolley Pushers) to be an integral part of the recycling process, specifically with glass. A further aim was to explore the tectonics of a factory to create a space where the Waste Reclaimers could gather, connect and engage with the product of glass. Lastly it aimed to provide a space where the general public could also engage in the product of glass recycling thereby creating awareness and promotion of recycling. The project proposed a glass recycling factory where the process of glass recycling culminates with the production of glass. The site selected for this research is located within the industrial part of the Newtown precinct. This has become a central recycling hub for the Waste Reclaimers of Johannesburg as it links private recycling centres within the city. Newtown is an area of flux, marked by a history of industrial and political disruption. This area represents change and opportunity for growth and life. A space recycled and regenerated throughout the history of Johannesburg. The reason for the choice of topic is that the evolution of recycling in Johannesburg has reached a point where municipalities need to acknowledge the informal sector as a valuable part of the recycling economy. The majority of the literature on recycling and the organization of the recycling process predominantly focuses on the collection of waste as means of job creation. An opportunity therefore presented itself to highlight the production, and craftsmanship of recyclable material. To clarify and further place the Waste Reclaimers within the existing waste management system, the theory of Phenomenology has been explored. It will focus on the phenomenological term of “Lifeworld” which describes a way of life where the individual’s aspiration, perceptions, experiences, beliefs and behaviour forms a holistic unity towards a fulfilling, meaningful, existence (Seamon, 2012). This exploration will give insight to how this building will provide the Waste Reclaimer a sense of identification and orientation within this system of the recycling industry. In order to better understand the complexity of the existing waste management system, the theory of Systems has been explored focusing on the principal of an open system as a way of broadening the lifeworld of the Waste Reclaimers Precedent studies of PFG Building Glass windscreen recovery facility; Zama City Waste; the comparison of factory tectonics between the Crystal Palace, Toledo Museum of Art Glass and the Crucible Glassblowing studio; the Glass Chapel and The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art were used to inform the design. The network of the Waste Reclaimers was also documented in order to understand their routes and network across the city and the surrounding suburbs. The impact of the design found that the proposed space created opportunities for pause and transformation using light, space and process. The idea of transformation is process. Process is represented by a linear path with adjacent spaces of function and support. These spaces will transform according to their activities and associated light qualities. These spaces will thus become the medium through which people and activities change.

Fifteen curbside recycling programs in the United States, from communities representing a variety of economic, geographic and political situations, were reviewed in this study. Case studies were analyzed and discussed with respect to four areas of interest to program planners: administration, operations, promotion and evaluation. No objective rating of the programs was attempted, but approaches were reviewed with respect to their ability to satisfy the goals of the programs. Comparisons of participation rates, waste diversion rates, and costs were used cautiously because of the inconsistencies in how the data were developed from program to program. Administrative approaches found in the case studies included: (a) complete ownership of the collection and processing system by municipalities; (b) contracted service by private waste management firms; (c) contracted or subsidized service by non-profit organizations; and (d) combinations of municipal, private, and non-profit services. Operational systems were examined with respect to the effectiveness of the service in stimulating participation, given the practical, political, and budgetary constraints. Variables of operation are closely related and include: (a) which materials are collected; (b) the degree of materials separation required; (c) the type of collection vehicle(s) used; (d) collection frequency and coincidence with garbage collection; (e) the provision of in home containers; and (t) the extent of post-collection materials processing. Four categories of promotional techniques used in curbside recycling programs were discussed: (a) publicity and education; (b) personal contact; (c) economic incentives; and (d) ordinances mandating source-separation. The impacts of these techniques on participation in the case study programs were discussed. Techniques for evaluating the efficacy of curbside recycling programs were also discussed. Participation rates, waste diversion rates, and cost were reviewed with respect to current usage and recommendations were made for increasing their usefulness as indicators of the success of programs or program elements. / Master of Science

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management