This research aimed to investigate an area of research that has largely been overlooked in the past, that is, the efficiency, profitability and sustainability of informal waste recycling in semi-urban areas. In exploring the research topic, a recycling buyback centre was used as a case study. The centre facilitates collection, sorting and selling of waste and is located in Senwabarwana, Northern Limpopo Province. Here the P.E.A.C.E (Planning, Education, Agriculture, Cooperatives and Environment) Foundation, an organisation looking at rural poverty alleviation in South Africa, initiated a flagship recycling buyback centre as a community project. This research picks up on prior research that was conducted on a similar project initiated by the same organisation in Ndumo, KwaZulu Natal. Even though the location is different from KwaZulu Natal, both Senwabarwana and Ndumo are faced with similar challenges affecting social, economic and environmental circumstances. Five objectives were identified to provide structure to this research. Through action research, the study assessed the sustainability of this recycling buyback centre with regard to the impact on social, economic and environmental factors within Senwabarwana. It also covered problems experienced in rolling out waste management initiatives within the semi-urban study location and assessed the municipal framework with regard to waste and how waste is managed and recycled. Furthermore, analyses of the waste data generated at the recycling centre was examined that culminated in offering solutions to the identified problems. Recommendations for acceptable practices in semi-urban waste management are made to enable further research and potentially up-scaling the project for application in other geographic areas. The study reports both qualitative and quantitative data collected through the investigation of the case study in the start-up phase. The data gathering was done through administering questionnaires to waste pickers associated with the case study centre. Telephonic and face-to-face interviews and secondary data were interchangeably used to address each of the five objectives. The results from the data gathered show that, if properly coordinated and structured, informal waste recycling in semi-urban communities is possible and can contribute positively to the socio-economic and environmental development of these areas. It is envisaged that this study would contribute to the body of knowledge already in existence, whilst also creating an opportunity for further academic research and input within this field to enable the scaling-up of such initiatives. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

A partir da Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (PNRS) instituída pela Lei n.º 12.305 de 2010, os gestores municipais passam a ser responsabilizados quanto as suas ações no tocante a geração e destinação dos resíduos sólidos urbanos. Entretanto, a Política Nacional busca um novo modelo de gestão, promovendo a inclusão social, a logística reversa e outros instrumentos que devem ser direcionados pelos planos municipais de gestão integrada de resíduos sólidos urbanos. A questão é saber qual efeito esta Lei surtiu após 6 anos da sua instituição nas capitais brasileiras? Para responder esta questão o presente trabalho buscou analisar as ações do poder público municipal e as respectivas mudanças geradas nos indicadores da gestão de resíduos sólidos urbanos alinhados com os seus Planos Municipais de Gerenciamento Integrado de Resíduos Sólidos PMGIRS. Delimitou-se a análise aos municípios de Belo Horizonte-MG, Curitiba-PR e Porto Alegre-RS, por apresentarem semelhanças socioeconômicas e ambientais, tendo como intervalo de estudo os anos entre 2008 a 2014, por dar possibilidade de análise o período que antecede e subsequente à instituição da PNRS. Para tanto foram analisados os dados disponíveis no Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE); Sistema Nacional de Informação de Resíduos Sólidos (SINIR- RS); Sistema Nacional de Informação de Saneamento (SNIS); institutos de pesquisa dos estados de Minas Gerais, Paraná e Rio Grande do Sul e informações das Prefeituras em questão. O presente estudo baseou-se em pesquisa quantitativa e qualitativa, além de estabelecer uma fundamentação teórica sobre o assunto abordado. Como resultado, foi caracterizada a gestão de resíduos sólidos urbanos dos municípios em questão e avaliado comparativamente os indicadores destes municípios. Os municípios já instituíram seus planos municipais, que estão alinhados com a PNRS, entretanto os indicadores de reciclagem e reaproveitamento dos resíduos sólidos urbanos não evoluíram significativamente. / From the National Solid Waste Policy (PNRS) established by the 2010 Law 12.305,municipal managers become accountable for their actions regarding the generation and disposal of municipal solid waste. However, the National Policy seeks a new management model, promoting social inclusion, reverse logistics and other instruments to be targeted by the municipal plans for integrated solid waste management. The question is what effect this law has had after 6 years of its institution in the Brazilian states capital. To answer this question this study sought to analyze the actions of the municipal government and its changes generated in municipal solid waste management indicators aligned with their Municipal Plans for Integrated Solid Waste Management (PMGIRS). The analysis was delimited to the municipalities of Belo Horizonte-MG, Curitiba-PR and Porto Alegre-RS, for presenting socioeconomic and environmental similarities, with the study interval the years between 2008 and 2014, to give possibility to analyze the period preceding and following the institution of the PNRS. Therefore the available data analyzed was from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE); National System of Solid Waste Information (SINIR-RS); National Sanitation Information System (SNIS); research institutes in the states of Minas Gerais, Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul and information of the Prefectures in question. This study was based on quantitative and qualitative research, besides the establishment of a theoretical foundation on the subject matter. As a result, waste management was characterized in the municipalities concerned and weighed against the indicators of these municipalities. The municipalities have already instituted their municipal plans that are aligned with the PNRS, however the indicators of recycling and reuse of waste have not evolved significantly.

Devido às mudanças no paradigma de consumo mundial, tornou-se imprescindível o gerenciamento integrado de resíduos sólidos domiciliares, como prevê a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos. Na propriedade rural, esta problemática é real e crescente, porém muito pouco estudada, nacionalmente e internacionalmente. Este trabalho apresenta o monitoramento da composição gravimétrica de resíduos sólidos domiciliares recicláveis e de indicadores das propriedades (Índice de Diversificação de Renda, Renda Bruta Total, Renda Agrícola, “Outras Rendas”, Superfície Agrícola Útil, Valor Financeiro Mensal de Consumo e a distância dos domicílios rurais até o centro comercial urbano) e suas relações com a produção mensal de resíduos sólidos domiciliares recicláveis de 31 residências de agricultores familiares no município de Chopinzinho-PR durante 12 meses (abril/2010 a março/2011). Registrou-se a produção per capita anual de 5,48 kg de resíduos com a ocorrência de plástico (46,47%), papel e papelão (27,18%), vidro (13,28%), metal (8,58%), multicamadas (3,00%), outros (0,98%) e poliestireno (0,52%). Não foram identificados produtos têxteis, mistos e borrachas. Identificou-se uma variação significativa na produção de resíduos nos meses de dezembro e agosto, quando ocorreu a maior produção. Entre as estações do ano não ocorreu variação significativa na produção média de resíduos, ocorrendo variação apenas na composição gravimétrica de papel e papelão, vidro, multicamadas e outros. Indicadores econômicos, tais como gasto financeiro mensal, renda total, renda agrícola e “outras rendas” foram determinantes no volume de produção de resíduos das famílias. Os gastos mensais (R$ 320,21) das famílias com aquisição de alimentos, materiais de higiene e limpeza não apresentaram diferença significativa no período. Registrou-se a inexistência de correlação entre a distância das famílias do centro urbano e a produção de resíduos. Gerenciar os resíduos domiciliares vai além de planejar a coleta seletiva. É imprescindível gerar novas legislações a fim de responsabilizar os fabricantes pelo ciclo global de vida de seus produtos, tanto no meio urbano como também no rural. / According to changes of the paradigm on world consumption, it has become essential the integrated management of solid household waste, as indicated by National Solid Waste Policy. On rural area this is a real problem that grows constantly. Neither nationally nor internationally has this problem been studied with special attention. This report shows the monitoring of gravimetric households solid waste and property directories (Index of Income Diversification, Total Gross Income, Agricultural Income, “Other Incomes”, Agricultural Incomes, Profitable Agricultural Area, Monthly Financial Value on Consumption and Distance from Rural Area to the Urban Center), and their relation to monthly production of solid waste on 31 family farm homes in Chopinzinho for 12 months (ron April/2010 to March/2011). The annual per capita recorded was 5.48 kg of waste, with the occurrence of plastic (46.47%), paper and cardboard (27.18%), glass (13.28%), metal (8.58%), multi-layer (3.00%), others (0.98%) and polystyrene (0.52%). No textile, mixed material and rubber were identified. A significant variation in the average production of waste was recorded in December and August, which were the highest ones. Among seasons of the year no significant variation occurred on waste average production, it happened only on gravimetric composition of paper and cardboard, glass, multi-layer and others. Economic indexes, such as monthly expenses, total income, agriculture income, and others, were determiners on production volume of households waste. The family monthly expenses (R$ 320,21) with hygiene and cleaning products did not present significant changes on this period. There is no correlation between rural households distance from the urban commercial center and waste production. Managing the household waste goes further than organizing a selective collection. Nowadays is essential to create new laws in order to place the responsibility on manufactures for global life cycle of its products, whether in urban or rural areas.

CNPq; CAPES / O gerenciamento de resíduos sólidos é um tema muito abordado atualmente, isto se deve ao fato de haver um aumento significativo de produção dos resíduos sólidos que, ao serem dispostos inadequadamente, são fontes poluidoras do ar, solo e águas. A necessidade de gerir de forma adequada os resíduos sólidos urbanos evoluiu de forma rápida e progressivamente, tornando-se um desafio para a sociedade e para a administração pública. No intuito de contribuir para o debate, a presente dissertação teve como objetivo analisar a gestão de resíduos sólidos urbanos adotado pelo município de Pato Branco – PR e sua adequação à legislação vigente. Este trabalho teve como base metodológica um estudo de caso empregando-se técnicas de coleta de dados. Considerando os resultados obtidos através de visitação e observação, entrevistas e questionários, torna-se possível verificar qual a situação da implementação da legislação vigente, principalmente a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (Lei nº 12.305/2010). Apesar de se identificarem avanços importantes no município estudado, principalmente na coleta dos resíduos sólidos e na destinação em aterro sanitário, verificam-se ainda duas questões pendentes, que referem-se a remediação do passivo ambiental do antigo aterro e realização da compostagem dos resíduos orgânico. Pontua-se portanto, que o avanço no gerenciamento dos resíduos sólidos está atrelado a aplicação de políticas pública adequadas e ao compartilhamento das responsabilidades entre todos os atores envolvidos. / The solid waste management is a topic much discussed today, this is due to the fact that we have a significant increase in production of solid waste which, when improperly disposed, are polluting sources of air, soil and water. The need to properly manage municipal solid waste evolved quickly and progressively, making it a challenge for society and public administration. In order to contribute to the discussion, this thesis was to analyze the municipal solid waste management process adopted by the city of Pato Branco - PR and its adaptation to the current legislation. This work was methodological basis a case study in qualitative research employing techniques of collecting primary and secondary data. Considering the results obtained through visitation and observation, interviews and questionnaires, it is possible to find what the status of implementation of existing legislation, especially the Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (Law nº 12,305/2010). Despite identify important advances in the city studied, especially in the collection of solid waste and disposal in landfill, there are still two outstanding issues, which relate to remediation of environmental liabilities of the old landfill and performing the composting of organic waste. It points out therefore that the advance in the management of appropriate solid waste is related to the implementation of public policies and the sharing of responsibilities between all actors involved.

Devido às mudanças no paradigma de consumo mundial, tornou-se imprescindível o gerenciamento integrado de resíduos sólidos domiciliares, como prevê a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos. Na propriedade rural, esta problemática é real e crescente, porém muito pouco estudada, nacionalmente e internacionalmente. Este trabalho apresenta o monitoramento da composição gravimétrica de resíduos sólidos domiciliares recicláveis e de indicadores das propriedades (Índice de Diversificação de Renda, Renda Bruta Total, Renda Agrícola, “Outras Rendas”, Superfície Agrícola Útil, Valor Financeiro Mensal de Consumo e a distância dos domicílios rurais até o centro comercial urbano) e suas relações com a produção mensal de resíduos sólidos domiciliares recicláveis de 31 residências de agricultores familiares no município de Chopinzinho-PR durante 12 meses (abril/2010 a março/2011). Registrou-se a produção per capita anual de 5,48 kg de resíduos com a ocorrência de plástico (46,47%), papel e papelão (27,18%), vidro (13,28%), metal (8,58%), multicamadas (3,00%), outros (0,98%) e poliestireno (0,52%). Não foram identificados produtos têxteis, mistos e borrachas. Identificou-se uma variação significativa na produção de resíduos nos meses de dezembro e agosto, quando ocorreu a maior produção. Entre as estações do ano não ocorreu variação significativa na produção média de resíduos, ocorrendo variação apenas na composição gravimétrica de papel e papelão, vidro, multicamadas e outros. Indicadores econômicos, tais como gasto financeiro mensal, renda total, renda agrícola e “outras rendas” foram determinantes no volume de produção de resíduos das famílias. Os gastos mensais (R$ 320,21) das famílias com aquisição de alimentos, materiais de higiene e limpeza não apresentaram diferença significativa no período. Registrou-se a inexistência de correlação entre a distância das famílias do centro urbano e a produção de resíduos. Gerenciar os resíduos domiciliares vai além de planejar a coleta seletiva. É imprescindível gerar novas legislações a fim de responsabilizar os fabricantes pelo ciclo global de vida de seus produtos, tanto no meio urbano como também no rural. / According to changes of the paradigm on world consumption, it has become essential the integrated management of solid household waste, as indicated by National Solid Waste Policy. On rural area this is a real problem that grows constantly. Neither nationally nor internationally has this problem been studied with special attention. This report shows the monitoring of gravimetric households solid waste and property directories (Index of Income Diversification, Total Gross Income, Agricultural Income, “Other Incomes”, Agricultural Incomes, Profitable Agricultural Area, Monthly Financial Value on Consumption and Distance from Rural Area to the Urban Center), and their relation to monthly production of solid waste on 31 family farm homes in Chopinzinho for 12 months (ron April/2010 to March/2011). The annual per capita recorded was 5.48 kg of waste, with the occurrence of plastic (46.47%), paper and cardboard (27.18%), glass (13.28%), metal (8.58%), multi-layer (3.00%), others (0.98%) and polystyrene (0.52%). No textile, mixed material and rubber were identified. A significant variation in the average production of waste was recorded in December and August, which were the highest ones. Among seasons of the year no significant variation occurred on waste average production, it happened only on gravimetric composition of paper and cardboard, glass, multi-layer and others. Economic indexes, such as monthly expenses, total income, agriculture income, and others, were determiners on production volume of households waste. The family monthly expenses (R$ 320,21) with hygiene and cleaning products did not present significant changes on this period. There is no correlation between rural households distance from the urban commercial center and waste production. Managing the household waste goes further than organizing a selective collection. Nowadays is essential to create new laws in order to place the responsibility on manufactures for global life cycle of its products, whether in urban or rural areas.

CNPq; CAPES / O gerenciamento de resíduos sólidos é um tema muito abordado atualmente, isto se deve ao fato de haver um aumento significativo de produção dos resíduos sólidos que, ao serem dispostos inadequadamente, são fontes poluidoras do ar, solo e águas. A necessidade de gerir de forma adequada os resíduos sólidos urbanos evoluiu de forma rápida e progressivamente, tornando-se um desafio para a sociedade e para a administração pública. No intuito de contribuir para o debate, a presente dissertação teve como objetivo analisar a gestão de resíduos sólidos urbanos adotado pelo município de Pato Branco – PR e sua adequação à legislação vigente. Este trabalho teve como base metodológica um estudo de caso empregando-se técnicas de coleta de dados. Considerando os resultados obtidos através de visitação e observação, entrevistas e questionários, torna-se possível verificar qual a situação da implementação da legislação vigente, principalmente a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (Lei nº 12.305/2010). Apesar de se identificarem avanços importantes no município estudado, principalmente na coleta dos resíduos sólidos e na destinação em aterro sanitário, verificam-se ainda duas questões pendentes, que referem-se a remediação do passivo ambiental do antigo aterro e realização da compostagem dos resíduos orgânico. Pontua-se portanto, que o avanço no gerenciamento dos resíduos sólidos está atrelado a aplicação de políticas pública adequadas e ao compartilhamento das responsabilidades entre todos os atores envolvidos. / The solid waste management is a topic much discussed today, this is due to the fact that we have a significant increase in production of solid waste which, when improperly disposed, are polluting sources of air, soil and water. The need to properly manage municipal solid waste evolved quickly and progressively, making it a challenge for society and public administration. In order to contribute to the discussion, this thesis was to analyze the municipal solid waste management process adopted by the city of Pato Branco - PR and its adaptation to the current legislation. This work was methodological basis a case study in qualitative research employing techniques of collecting primary and secondary data. Considering the results obtained through visitation and observation, interviews and questionnaires, it is possible to find what the status of implementation of existing legislation, especially the Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (Law nº 12,305/2010). Despite identify important advances in the city studied, especially in the collection of solid waste and disposal in landfill, there are still two outstanding issues, which relate to remediation of environmental liabilities of the old landfill and performing the composting of organic waste. It points out therefore that the advance in the management of appropriate solid waste is related to the implementation of public policies and the sharing of responsibilities between all actors involved.

A ampliação dos sistemas de tratamento de esgoto sanitário implica diretamente no aumento da geração de lodos de esgoto, que precisam ser adequadamente dispostos. Devido aos benefícios agronômicos, a incorporação de lodo de esgoto em solo agrícola tem sido, em diversos países, a forma mais sustentável para aproveitamento deste resíduo. A Resolução Conama 375 de 2006 normatiza essa prática no Brasil, e os critérios para a tomada de decisão quanto a ocorrência de poluentes químicos no lodo de esgoto se restringe a determinação de onze compostos inorgânicos, o que gera preocupação em relação a outros compostos presentes na matriz e que podem proporcionar riscos ao ecossistema e à saúde humana. Para complementar a avaliação de matrizes complexas como lodo de esgoto, efluentes, sedimentos, solos contaminados, se tem preconizado o uso de testes de toxicidade, os quais fornecem evidências do perigo da mistura como um todo. O objetivo da tese foi desenvolver um índice para avaliar a periculosidade de lodo de esgoto, utilizando ensaios ecotoxicológicos de curta duração e baixo custo, com objetivo de subsidiar decisões mais rápidas quanto a sua aplicação em solo agrícola. O Índice de Perigo de Lodo de Esgoto (IPLE) integrou os resultados de teste de ecotoxicidade com Vibrio fischeri, Daphnia similis e teste de inibição do alongamento de raiz e da germinação de sementes. A fórmula do IPLE desenvolvido foi: log natural de um somado ao número de testes positivos, multiplicado pela ecotoxicidade média obtida nos testes, convertidos em unidade tóxica. O IPLE foi calculado utilizando os dados publicados pela CETESB de caracterização química e ecotoxicológica de 28 amostras de lodo de esgoto coletadas em 7 Estações de Tratamento de Esgoto (ETE) do Estado de São Paulo. O IPLE foi testado pela avaliação do percentual de amostras não conformes por faixa de índice, considerando para tanto os limites de substância química estabelecidos em diferentes normas de uso agrícola de lodo. As amostras com IPLE acima de 2 (n=15) apresentaram maior frequência de não conformidade quando comparado com as amostras com índice abaixo de 2 (n=13). O IPLE parece ser um bom indicador preliminar do perigo de amostras de lodo de esgoto, sugerindo reprovação e aprovação precoce de seu uso agrícola e como instrumento para acompanhamento e gestão da qualidade do lodo e comunicação de perigo / The expansion of urban wastewater treatment plants increases the generation of sewage sludge, that must be properly disposed. Due to the agronomic benefits, the incorporation of sewage sludge on agricultural land has been in several countries, the most sustainable use of this waste. CONAMA Resolution 375 of 2006 regulates the practice in Brazil, and the criteria for chemical pollutants in the sewage sludge are based on the concentration of eleven inorganic compounds, which raises concern in relation to other compounds present in matrix that could provide risk to the ecosystem and human health. Ecotoxicology evaluation of complex samples as sewage sludge, wastewater, sediments, contaminated soils, has been often recommended to provide evidence of the whole mixture. The aim of this thesis was to develop a Sewage Sludge Hazard Index (SSHI) based on short term and low cost bioassays, to be a complementary tool for the decisionmaking process of sewage sludge application to agricultural land. SSHI integrated results from Vibrio fischeri, Daphnia similis and seed elongation/germination test. Sewage Sludge Hazard Index (SSHI) was calculated as the natural logarithm of one plus the number of positive toxic responses multiplied by the average of the toxic units obtained in each bioassay. The index was calculated using data generated by CETESB from chemical and ecotoxicological characterization of 28 samples collected in 7 different wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) of Sao Paulo State. SSHI was tested by assessing the percentage of samples non-compliances for indexranks, considering chemical thresholds of pollutants in sewage sludge from differents norms for agricultural use of sludge. All samples with SSHI above 2 (n = 15) had higher incidence of non-compliance then samples below 2 (n = 13). SSHI seems to be a good primary indicator of the hazard of sewage sludge samples, suggesting early approval or disapproval to agricultural use, also as a tool for monitoring and managing the quality of sludge, and for hazard communication

M.Sc. (Environmental Management) / The University of Johannesburg (UJ) generates vast quantities of solid waste daily. One of the four campuses, Doornfontein campus, was chosen as study area, to calculate the amounts of waste generated and investigate changes in volume from 2009 to 2013. Waste collected from the campus was separated into recyclables and non-recyclables. The recyclable waste was then further divided into different categories, with each weighed separately. The discourse provides an overview of solid waste and the management thereof, in conjunction with a review of changes and updates to past and current legislation pertaining to waste management in South Africa. Furthermore, the study provides an assessment of waste management and recycling practices at international and national academic institutions and examines the UJ waste policy and policy implementation. Finally, the study provides recommendations for improving the management of waste at UJ.

M.Tech. (Chemical Engineering) / Solid waste management is a growing environmental concern in developing countries such as South Africa. Waste tyres fall under the general solid waste category give rise to land filling, health and environmental challenges. As a result, majority of these waste tyres accumulate in large quantities at landfill sites or end up being illegally disposed in open fields. Thus, sustainable remedial technologies such as pyrolysis which are environmentally friendly must be developed. Pyrolysis offers a number of attractive advantages as a treatment option such as the production of primary and secondary economic valuable products, namely pyrolysis gas, oil, char and steel wires. The objective of this work was the development of a business model which includes costing, procurement, installation, commissioning and operating a batch pyrolysis plant in Gauteng, South Africa. In addition this work assesses the environmental, socio-economic aspects for waste tyre derived products. The study objectives were achieved through literature research, site visits, telephonic and personal interviews as well as questionnaires. An order of magnitude costing method was used for the construction of the pyrolysis business model. The model showed that it is possible to operate and sustain a batch pyrolysis plant with a constant supply of waste tyres in the Gauteng region. This research has also shown that a batch plant with a 12 year life span and a projected payback period of approximately 5 years can be operated. However, an initial capital incentive of R 10 173 075.00 is required which includes the cost of all major equipment, plant assessment costs, building and structure, engineering and construction and other costs such as contingency fees and office utilities. Four major income streams are expected to be core revenues for the business; the waste tyre gate fee, tyre derived pyrolysis oil, carbon black and steel wire. Project evaluation methods such as the Return on Investment (ROI), Return of Assets (ROA) and the Rate of Return (ROR) were in strong agreement with those obtained from literature. In addition, the positive net present value shows that the project is viable. However, a stable and well regulated market should exist for the pyrolysis products.

South Africa is confronted by waste management challenges and the need to redress environmentally acceptable waste management practices. In seeking to address this challenge, the South African government has introduced waste management legislation, policies and strategies. Despite the legislation, policies and strategies on waste management, illegal waste dumping continues to exist as a major challenge in particular for the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality. This study focuses on illegal waste dumping in Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality which negatively impacts on development. The study seeks to make recommendations which will assist the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality to improve its waste management services. This study involved a community participatory approach by communities in Motherwell, New Brighton and Gelvandale. The research follows a mixed method approach, employing both qualitative and quantitative approach. A Public Perception Survey is used as a method of data collection aimed at determining the present public opinions regarding the waste management services currently offered by the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality (NMBM). The study found that despite interventions by the NMBM to address illegal dumping, the problem continues to exist. Poor service provision by the NMBM in terms of waste collection services combined with the lack of awareness of the community‟s responsibility towards the cleanliness of its communities leads to littering and illegal dumping of waste by communities. The NMBM is not effective in the planning, coordination and implementation of its waste management services. Recommendations have been presented with regard to how effective waste management services in NMBM can be enhanced.