Chemijos ir energetikos pramonėje austenitinės klasės chromnikeliniai nerūdijantys plienai dažnai naudojami gaminti ypač atsakingoms konstrukcijoms, kurios dirba agresyviose, žmogaus gyvybei pavojingose aplinkose. Todėl yra keliami ypač aukšti ilgaamžiškumo ir patikimumo reikalavimai. Tyrime pateikiamas vamzdyje, pagamintame iš nerūdijančio austenitinės klasės X8CrNiTi18-10 plieno, atsiradusių įtrūkių tyrimas. Nagrinėjamas vamzdis dirbo 90 000 valandų agresyvioje terpėje, kur veikė aukšta temperatūra (440 °C) ir slėgis (6-7 MPa). Įtrūkių atsiradimo priežasčių įvertinimui buvo atlikti cheminės sudėties, stipruminiai, kietumo bandymai, bei metalografiniai struktūrų tyrimai. Šis tyrimas padės užkirsti kelią galimoms avarijoms, tiksliau prognozuoti ir įvertinti vamzdžių, pagamintų iš šios klasės plieno, eksploatacinį patikimumą - ilgaamžiškumą ateityje. / Chemistry and energy industry chrome-nickel stainless class of austenitic steels are often used in the production of particular structures responsible, which employs aggressive, dangerous environment of human life. Therefore, it is particularly significant for the durability and reliability requirements. The article provides a tube made of austenitic class X8CrNiTi18-10 steel, cracks resulting from the investigation. Examined the pipe is worked 90 000 hours of aggressive media, with its high temperature and pressure. Cracks in the assessment was made of chemical composition, strength, hardness testing, and metalografiniai structures. This study will help the cross-road for potential emergencies, specifically to predict and assess the pipes made from this class of steel operating reliability and durability of the future.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The distribution system is an extremely important part of the energy supply. At the same time, distribution networks, most of them with radial configuration, are much more vulnerable elements compared with transmission and sub transmission systems. The world experience shows that up to 80% of all interruptions in the energy supply are caused by failure in elements of the distribution systems. Naturally, a significant increase in reliability can be obtained through re-structuring of the distribution networks. This involves transformation of the traditional overhead networks into protected compact networks, duplication of energy supply alternatives for the consumers, duplication of the distribution transformers and wide use of network automation. All these alternatives demand massive investments. Another way of reliability improvement is related with the installation of commutation equipments. However, this solution should foresee a composition choice of types of equipment, the necessary amount and strategic location that all together can guarantee better results under the costbenefit point of view. The importance and efficiency of these solutions are confirmed through a large number of related researches accomplished in several countries. However, optimal installation of commutation equipments is an extremely complex problem. In the first place, it is necessary to define what means optimal degree of reliability, which is linked with the analysis of several possible formulations for the reliability optimization problem. In the second place, it is necessary to find out which characteristics can be used for reliability estimation and in what ways they should be implemented in the objective functions and restrictions along the process of reliability optimization. In the third place, through analysis of the available data existing in the electricity company, it is necessary to define if this information is sufficient for solution of the network optimal sectioning problem and what is the uncertainty level of this information. Finally, it should be chosen appropriate optimization methods, considering that researches show the impossibility of an efficient use of the linear and non linear programming methods taking into account characteristics of objective functions and restrictions. Furthermore, it is necessary not to forget that, most of the time, this problem should be solved in networks that already have commutation equipment installed. Therefore, usually, the optimization problem is addressed to redistribution of equipments already installed or the installation of additional equipments. This work is an attempt to find answers with respect to all these previously mentioned items, taking into account the operational conditions of the Brazilian electricity companies. / O sistema de distribuição é parte extremamente importante do fornecimento de energia. Ao mesmo tempo, as redes de distribuição, na maioria das vezes com configuração radial, são os elementos mais vulneráveis comparado com o sistema de transmissão e sub transmissão. A experiência mundial mostra que até 80% de todas as interrupções no fornecimento de energia são provocados por falhas nos elementos dos sistemas de distribuição. Naturalmente, que um aumento significativo na confiabilidade pode ser atingido através da reestruturação das redes de distribuição. Isto envolve as transformações das redes aéreas tradicionais para redes compactas protegidas, ou a duplicação das alternativas de suprimento de energia para os consumidores, através da instalação de dois transformadores de distribuição ou automatização completa das redes. Todas estas alternativas exigem investimento muito elevado. Outro meio de aumento da confiabilidade está relacionado com a instalação de equipamentos de comutação. Entretanto, esta solução deve prever a escolha da composição ótima de vários tipos de equipamentos, quantidade necessária e localização estratégica, que em conjunto podem garantir maior efeito sob o ponto de vista do custo-benefício. A importância e eficiência destas soluções estão confirmadas através do grande número de pesquisas realizadas em vários países. Entretanto este problema é extremamente complexo. Em primeiro lugar, é necessário definir o que significa nível ótimo de confiabilidade, o que está ligado com a análise das várias formulações possíveis do problema de otimização da confiabilidade. Em segundo lugar, é necessário encontrar quais características podem servir para a estimação da confiabilidade e de que forma elas devem ser implementadas na função objetivo e restrição no processo de otimização da confiabilidade. Em terceiro lugar, através da análise dos dados disponíveis na concessionária é preciso definir se a informação é suficiente para a solução do chaveamento ótimo e qual o nível de incerteza desta informação. E, por último, devem ser escolhidos os métodos adequados de otimização, considerando que as pesquisas mostram a impossibilidade do uso eficiente de métodos de programação linear e não linear, levando em conta as características da função objetivo e restrições do problema em análise. Além disso, é necessário não esquecer que na maioria das vezes este problema deve ser resolvido em redes que já possuem equipamentos de comutação instalados. Por isso, geralmente, o problema de otimização está direcionado para a redistribuição dos equipamentos já instalados ou a instalação de equipamentos adicionais. Neste trabalho é realizada a tentativa de encontrar as respostas em relação a todos os itens mencionados anteriormente, com base nas condições de operação das concessionárias brasileiras.

With the advent of technology scaling lifetime reliability is an emerging threat in high-performance and deadline-critical systems. High on-chip thermal gradients accelerates localised thermal elevations (hotspots) which increases the aging rate of the semiconductor devices. As a result, reliable operation of the processors has become a challenging task. Therefore, cost effective schemes for estimating temperature and reliability are crucial. In this work we present a reliability estimation scheme that is based on a light-weight temperature estimation technique that monitors hardware events. Unlike previously pro- posed hardware counter-based approaches, our approach involves a linear-temporal-feedback estimator, taking into account the effects of thermal inertia. The proposed approach shows an average absolute error of We then present a counter-based technique to estimate the thermal accelerated aging factor (TAAF), which is an indicator of lifetime reliability. Results demonstrate that the estimation error is within [−3, +5].

The reliability of protection systems has emerged as an important topic because protection failures have critical influence on the reliability of power systems. The goal of this research is to develop novel approaches for modeling and analysis of the impact of protection system failures on power system reliability. It is shown that repairable and non-repairable assumptions make a remarkable difference in reliability modeling. A typical all-digital protection system architecture is modeled and numerically analyzed. If an all-digital protection system is indeed repairable but is modeled in a non-repairable manner for analysis, the calculated values of reliability indices could be grossly pessimistic. The smart grid is emerging with the penetration of information-age technologies and the development of the Special Protection System (SPS) will be greatly influenced. A conceptual all-digital SPS architecture is proposed for the future smart grid. Calculation of important reliability indices by the network reduction method and the Markov modeling method is illustrated in detail. Two different Markov models are proposed for reliability evaluation of the 2-out-of-3 voting gates structure in a generation rejection scheme. If the model with consideration of both detectable and undetectable logic gate failures is used as a benchmark, the simple model which only considers detectable failures will significantly overestimate the reliability of the 2-out-of-3 voting gates structure. The two types of protection failures, undesired-tripping mode and fail-to-operate mode are discussed. A complete Markov model for current-carrying components is established and its simplified form is then derived. The simplified model can appropriately describe the overall reliability situation of individual components under the circumstances of complex interactions between components due to protection failures. New concepts of the self-down state and the induced-down state are introduced and utilized to build up the composite unit model. Finally, a two-layer Markov model for power systems with protection failures is proposed. It can quantify the impact of protection failures on power system reliability. Using the developed methodology, we can see that the assumption of perfectly reliable protection can introduce errors in reliability evaluation of power systems.

Abstract Electronic devices are subjected to various usage environments, wherein stresses are induced to components and their interconnections. The level of stress affects the interval of failure occurrences. When the stress level and aging characteristics of sub-material parts are known, the failure occurrence can be predicted. However, the predictions are based on uncertainties and a practical method to help to assess the component interconnection reliability is needed. In this thesis a novel method to utilize the accelerated stress test data for the hazard rate estimates is introduced. The hazard rate expectations of the interconnection elements are presented as interconnection failures in time (i-FIT) figures that can be used as a part of the conventional product reliability estimates. The method utilizes second level reliability test results for a packaging type specific failure occurrence estimates. Furthermore, the results can be used as such in the component packaging reliability estimates. Moreover, a novel method to estimate the interconnection failures in terms of costs is presented. In this novel method the interconnection elements are dealt as cost elements. It is also shown that the costs of the interconnection failures could be very high, if the stress-strength characteristics of the interconnection system are wrongly chosen. The lead-free manufacturing has emphasized the thermal compatibility of the materials of the component, the solder and the Printed Wiring Board. Improper materials for Area Array components will result as excessive component warping during the reflow, as is shown in this thesis. A novel method for estimating the amount of component warping during the lead-free reflow is introduced. In this thesis, a method to predict the second level interconnection hazard rate is introduced. The method utilizes the second level reliability test data in the life time predictions of the component solder joints. The resulted hazard rates can be used as a part of product field performance estimates. Also, the effect of the process variation and the material properties on the lead-free solder joint reliability is introduced. / Tiivistelmä Elektronisen laitteen materiaalien yhteensopivuus ja käyttöympäristö määrittävät sen kokemat rasitukset. Laitteen komponentteihin tai niiden liitoksiin kohdistuvat rasitukset aiheuttavat lopulta laitteen vikaantumisen. Vikaantumisten taajuuteen vaikuttavat paitsi rasituksen taso ja tyyppi, myös laitteen materiaalien ominaisuudet. Todellinen vikaantumistaajuus perustuu kuitenkin muihinkin parametreihin, mistä johtuen vikaantumisennusteet voivat olla epätarkkoja. Tästä syystä käytännölliselle liitosten vikaantumisen arviointimenetelmälle on tarve. Tässä väitöskirjassa esitellään uusi komponenttien juotosliitosten arviointimenetelmä, jonka avulla voidaan muuntaa kiihdytetyn rasitustestauksen tulos vikaantumistaajuusarvioksi laitteen todellisessa käyttöympäristössä. Menelmässä hyödynnetään levytason rasitustestauksen tuloksia komponenttien kotelotyyppikohtaisiin vikaantumisennusteisiin. Menetelmää voidaan käyttää sellaisenaan arvioitaessa komponenttikoteloiden luotettavuutta todellisissa rasitus- tai tuoteympäristöissä. Väitöskirjassa esitellään myös uusi menetelmä vikaantuneiden liitosten kustannusten määrittämiseen, mikä auttaa myös uuden liitosteknologian kokonaiskustannusten arvioimisessa. Lisäksi väitöskirjatyössä osoitetaan, että liitosvikojen aiheuttamat kustannukset voivat olla erittäin korkeita, mikäli juotosliitoksiin kohdistuvat rasitukset ylittävät liitosten suunnitellun kestävyyden. Elektroniikan lyijyttömän valmistamisen myötä komponenttien, juotteen ja piirilevyn materiaalien yhteensopivuus korostuu. Väitöskirjatyössä osoitetaan, että yhteensopimattomien materiaalien käyttäminen komponenteissa voi johtaa komponentin liialliseen taipumaan kuumakonvektiojuottamisen aikana. Lisäksi esitellään menetelmä komponentin taipuman arvioimiseksi lämpötilan funktiona. Tässä väitöskirjassa esitellään uusi menetelmä, jolla voidaan arvioida komponenttien juotosliitosten vikaantumista ja vikaantumisen vaikutusta tuotteiden kokonaiskustannuksiin. Menetelmä perustuu kiihdytetyn rasitustestauksen tuloksiin, joita voidaan käyttää juotosliitosten vikaantumisten arvioimiseen tuotteen todellisissa käyttöolosuhteissa. Lisäksi väitöskirjatyössä on arvioitu juotosmateriaalin ja juotosaluemitoituksen vaikutusta juotosliitosten luotettavuuteen.