Το ενεργειακό ζήτημα είναι ίσως ένα από τα σημαντικότερα προβλήματα του 21ου αιώνα. Η έως τώρα παραγωγή ενέργειας γινόταν αποκλειστικά από την εκμετάλλευση των ορυκτών πόρων της φύσης (γαιάνθαρακες, πετρέλαιο). Είχαμε στραφεί σε αυτό το μοντέλο παραγωγής ενέργειας λόγω του χαμηλού κόστους παραγωγής. Οι ορυκτές καύσιμες ύλες χρειάζονται εκατοντάδες χρόνια να δημιουργηθούν, καθιστώντας της ουσιαστικά μη ανανεώσιμες αφού ο ρυθμός κατανάλωσης τους είναι πολύ μεγάλος. Με την πάροδο του χρόνου όμως παρατηρείται η συνεχής αύξηση της ζήτησης ενέργειας, γεγονός που σε συνάρτηση με την μείωση των αποθεμάτων ορυκτών πόρων μας στρέγει στην παραγωγή ενέργειας από ανανεώσιμες πηγές ενέργειας. Έτσι τα τελευταία χρόνια έχουμε την ανάπτυξη νέων τεχνολογιών για την εκμετάλλευση των Α.Π.Ε. και την εξέλιξη πολλών παλιών με στόχο την μείωση του κόστους παραγωγής και την αύξηση της αποδοτικότητας τους. Οι Ανανεώσιμες Πηγές Ενέργειας είναι πηγές τα αποθέματα των οποίων ανανεώνονται φυσικά , και οι οποίες θεωρούνται πρακτικά ανεξάντλητες αδυναμία επίσης ύπαρξης δικτύου σε απομονωμένες και μικρού πληθυσμού περιοχές , σε συνδυασμό με την οικονομικά ασύμφορη λύση της κατασκευής ηλεκτρικού δικτύου μεταφοράς ,δίνει το έρεισμα στην σχεδίαση και υλοποίηση ηλεκτρικά αυτόνομων κατοικιών ή και ολόκληρων οικισμών ( δηλαδή μη συνδεδεμένων με το δίκτυο) μέσω της εκμετάλλευσης διαφόρων μορφών ΑΠΕ. Λόγω της στοχαστικής τους φύσης οι ΑΠΕ αδυνατούν να καλύψουν από μόνες τους περισσότερους τύπους του ηλεκτρικού φορτίου. Ζητήματα όπως η μετατροπή της ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας και η αποθήκευση της , ανακύπτουν λόγω της έλλειψης διαθεσιμότητας των ΑΠΕ σε εικοσιτετράωρη βάση. Αυτοί οι παράγοντες έχουν οδηγήσει στην ανάπτυξη των υβριδικών συστημάτων παραγωγής ενέργειας. Τα υβριδικά συστήματα που συνδυάζουν δύο ή περισσότερες μορφές ενέργειας έχουν αποδειχθεί σαν αποτελεσματικό μέσο για τη τροφοδότηση ηλεκτρικά αυτόνομων κατοικιών Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία θα μελετηθεί η ανάπτυξη αυτόνομών υβριδικών συστημάτων παραγωγής ενέργειας για την τροφοδότηση μιας απομακρυσμένης νησιωτικής περιοχής , με σκοπό την ανεύρεση του πιο συμφέροντος συνδυασμού πηγών ενέργειας με κριτήρια το κόστος την παραγωγή ενέργειας και την μόλυνση του περιβάλλοντος. Η μελέτη έγινε για τέσσερις διαφορετικούς συνδυασμούς υβριδικών συστημάτων που στηρίζονται στη χρήση Ανανεώσιμων Πηγών Ενέργειας (ηλιακή, αιολική και υδρογόνου) σε συνδυασμό με κινητήρα πετρελαίου. Οι συνδυασμοί είναι οι εξής: Photovoltaic - Diesel system Wind Turbine - Diesel system Wind Turbine - Photovoltaic system Photovoltaic - Fuel Cell system Στο Κεφάλαιο 1 γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στις Α.Π.Ε και αναφέρονται κάποια γενικά στοιχεία που περιγράφουν τη κατάσταση στη χώρα μας. Ακόμη γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στα υβριδικά συστήματα παραγωγής ενέργειας. Αναλύονται οι λόγοι χρήσης του υβριδικού συστήματος γενικά καθώς και η υπάρχουσα κατάσταση στην Ελλάδα. Στα Κεφάλαια 2,3,4,5 περιγράφονται οι τεχνολογίες που εκμεταλλεύονται Α.Π.Ε. Οι τεχνολογίες αυτές είναι τα φωτοβολταικά, ανεμογεννήτριες, Fuel Cell και συσσωρευτές αποθήκευσης. Περιγράφεται ο τρόπος λειτουργίας τους και παραθέτονται χαρακτηριστικά τους στοιχεία. Στην συνέχεια στο Κεφάλαιο 6 γίνεται εκτεταμένη περιγραφή του προγράμματος HOMER το οποίο εκτελεί τις προσομοιώσεις των υβριδικών συστημάτων παρουσιάζοντας τον βέλτιστο συνδυασμό τους τεχνοοικονομικά. Αναφέρονται λεπτομερώς οι τρεις λειτουργίες που πραγματοποιεί (εξομοίωση, βελτιστοποίηση, ανάλυση ευαισθησίας) όπως επίσης και τα οικονομικά και τα ηλεκτρικά μεγέθη που αποτυπώνονται στα αποτελέσματα του προγράμματος με απώτερο σκοπό την βαθύτερη κατανόηση τους . Στο τελικό στάδιο της Διπλωματικής εργασίας και συγκεκριμένα στο Κεφάλαιο 7 αφού γίνεται μια αρχική αναφορά στον τόπο όπου πραγματοποιείται η μελέτη καθώς και στην ενεργειακή κατανάλωση των κατοίκων της περιοχής , έπειτα καταγράφονται τα τεχνολογικά στοιχεία των εξαρτημάτων που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν καθώς και οι μεταβλητές που εισάχθηκαν στο HOMER. Ακολουθεί η εκτεταμένη περιγραφή του κάθε υβριδικού συστήματος με σχηματικές απεικονίσεις και ερμηνεία των καμπυλών που προκύπτουν από τη προσομοίωση. Τέλος στο Κεφάλαιο 8 πραγματοποιείται σύγκριση των αποτελεσμάτων που προέκυψαν με στόχο την ανεύρεση του βέλτιστου συνδιασμού με βασικά κριτήρια το συνολικό κόστος της επένδυσης, το πλεόνασμα ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας, την ετήσια παραγωγή ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας σε KWh και τις ποσότητες ρυπογόνων ουσιών που εκπέμπονται στο περιβάλλον. Το συμπέρασμα που προκύπτει είναι το μέλλον θα ανήκει στην τεχνολογία του Υδρογόνου, αφου ξεπεραστούν βέβαια κάποια εμπόδια οικονομικής κυρίως φύσεως. / The aim of the project is to examine how a hybrid system with renewable energy sources can meet the electric load demands of an island community. The system is not connected to grid. The area of study is Menites which is located in Andros island. The community is inhabited continuously all the year but in the summer we have excessive load demands because of the touristic activity. The hybrid systems we simulate, have all the synergy of stocking battaries, are the following: Photovoltaic - Diesel system Wind Turbine - Diesel system Wind Turbine - Photovoltaic system Photovoltaic - Fuel Cell system In Chapter 1 the renewable energy systems are introduced and reported some general elements with regard to the situation in our country. the energy production hybrid systems are also introduced here. In general, the reasons of hybrid systems use are analyzed as well as the present situation in Greece. In Chapter 2 the renewable energy systems that use the solar power are introduced. The phenomenon which enables them to produce electric energy from the sun is explained. We also quote the important components of them, their technology and their features. In Chapter 3 we examine the renewable energy systems that use the wind power. The wind turbines are introduced, their technology and their features. In Chapter 4 we examine the Fuel Cell technology. The way the fuel cell technology works, its components, electrolyzers, and the technology of producing and storaging hydrogen is introduced. In Chapter 5 we introduce the batteries we use to renewable energy systems and their technology. Then, in Chapter 6, the Micro power Optimization Model HOMER is described extensively. This computer model presents the optimum configuration by taking for granted the Total Net Present Cost (NPC) of each system. Homer also materializes three basic operations (simulation, optimization and sensitivity analysis) which are obvious in this project. In the final stage of this project and more specifically in Chapter 7 is given the location of the study as well as the load which is going to be covered by the hybrid system. Afterwards, a description of technological elements takes place and the variables that are used by HOMER are reported too. Extensive description of each hybrid system with schematic depictions and interpretation of curves that results from the simulation follows. Finally in Chapter 8 all the results are compared together, aiming to find the optimum configuration with basic criteria the total cost of investment, the surplus of electric energy, the annual production of electric energy in KWh and the quantities of pollutant substances that are emitted in the environment. The conclusion that derives is that the future belongs to the technology of Hydrogen.

Τα τελευταία χρόνια οι ανανεώσιμες πηγές ενέργειας είναι ένας τομέας που παρουσιάζει αλματώδη ανάπτυξη. Οι συνεχώς αυξανόμενες απαιτήσεις σε ενέργεια, αλλά και σε θέματα προστασίας του περιβάλλοντος, έχουν οδηγήσει στην ανάπτυξη αυτή. Στην εργασία αυτή γίνεται μελέτη των τεχνολογιών που χρησιμοποιούνται στους μετατροπείς ισχύος, για σύνδεση ανανεώσιμων συστημάτων παραγωγής ενέργειας στο δίκτυο. Αρχικά, θα παρουσιαστούν τοπολογίες μετατροπέων ισχύος για σύνδεση με το δίκτυο φωτοβολταικών (ΦΒ) συστημάτων παραγωγής ενέργειας. Ο μετατροπέας ισχύος, που λειτουργεί ως αντιστροφέας στην περίπτωση σύνδεσης με το δίκτυο ΦΒ συστημάτων, είναι το κυριότερο στοιχείο του συστήματος γιατί μετατρέπει την DC ισχύ που παράγεται από το ΦΒ σύστημα σε AC ισχύ, που παρέχεται στο δίκτυο. Για τη σύνδεση διανεμημένων συστημάτων παραγωγής ενέργειας με το δίκτυο πρέπει να πληρούνται ορισμένες προϋποθέσεις, έτσι ώστε να διασφαλισθεί ασφαλής και συνεχής ροή ισχύος στο δίκτυο. Οι προϋποθέσεις που απαιτούνται παρουσιάζονται στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο. Το ηλεκτρικό δίκτυο είναι ένα δυναμικό σύστημα, του οποίου η συμπεριφορά εξαρτάται από πολλούς παράγοντες. Συνεπώς, οι συδεδεμένοι στο δίκτυο μετατροπείς ισχύος θα πρέπει να είναι σχεδιασμένοι έτσι ώστε να εγγυώνται σταθερή λειτουργία υπό κανονικές συνθήκες τάσης. Ακόμα, πολύ σημαντικός είναι και ο σχεδιασμός αλγόριθμων ελέγχου οι οποίοι εγγυώνται ασφαλή και σθεναρή λειτουργία κατά τη διάρκεια σφαλμάτων. Η AC ισχύς που παρέχεται στο δίκτυο, υπό κανονικές συνθήκες, πρέπει να είναι συγχρονισμένη με αυτό. Οι μέθοδοι συγχρονισμού του AC ρεύματος του μετατροπέα, που παρέχει την ισχύ στο δίκτυο, παρουσιάζονται στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται το φαινόμενο της νησιδοποίησης. Δίνονται λόγοι για τους οποίους το φαινόμενο αυτό είναι ανεπιθύμητο σε ΦΒ συστήματα συνδεδεμένα στο δίκτυο. Στη συνέχεια παρουσιάζονται τεχνολογίες που ανιχνεύουν το φαινόμενο ώστε να αποσυνδέσουν το σύστημα από το δίκτυο. Τέλος, στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο, παρουσιάζονται στρατηγικές υλοποίησης ελεγκτών, ώστε υπό μη κανονικές συνθήκες οι μετατροπείς ισχύος να παρέχουν την απαιτούμενη στήριξη στο δίκτυο. / In the last few years, renewable energy sources have experienced swift growth, due to the evergrowing needs for energy and environmental concerns. In the present, the technologies used in grid connected power converters for renewable energy sources are studied. In the first chapter, widely used topologies for grid connected power converters, mainly used in photovoltaic (PV) systems, are presented. The power converter, which in this case functions as an inverter, is the key element in grid connected PV systems. This is beacause it is used to convert the DC power generated by PV panels into grid-synchronized AC power. Grid connected PV systems have to comply with requirements, so that safe and seamless tranfer of electrical energy is ensured. These requiremnts are presented in the second chapter. The electrical grid is a dynamical system, whose behaviour depends upon many factors. As a consequence, grid connected power converters should be designed in such way, so that proper operation under generic grid voltage conditions is guaranteed. Furthermore, control algorithms which can guarantee a robust and safe performane under abnorman grid conditions is a key factor in the design of grid connected power converters. The AC power delivered to the grid from a renewable energy source, under generic grid conditions, should be synchronised with a grid parameter. Grid synchronization methods for the regulation of the AC currents or voltages supplied to the grid by the power converter (in PV systems) are presented in the third chapter. In the fourth chapter, the condition of islanding is presented. The reasons why the islanding condition is unwanted in PV systems are mentioned and anti-islanding methods are discussed. Finally, in the fifth chapter, implementation methods of controllers that can guarantee the support to the grid by the power converter, under unbalanced grid conditions, are presented.

Στην παρούσα εργασία ασχοληθήκαμε με την ανάπτυξη ενός συστήματος, που θα ασκεί εποπτικό έλεγχο και θα παρουσιάζει δεδομένα, που προέρχονται από συστήματα ανανεώσιμων πηγών ενέργειας. Η εργασία αναπτύχθηκε με βάση τις ΑΠΕ, αλλά μπορεί να εφαρμοσθεί σε πληθώρα άλλων εφαρμογών. Παρέχει πολλές δυνατότητες παραμετροποίησης, ώστε να προσαρμόζεται στις ανάγκες της κάθε εφαρμογής. / This work creates a system, which controls and shows data. These data come from systems, which take advantage of Renewable Energy Sources. The work is primary created for RES, but it is suitable for many other applications, as well. It can be configured in many ways so as to be suitable for almost any application, which demands supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA).

Submitted by JULIANA CRISTINA RUBIO LAMPKOWSKI null (julianacrl@uol.com.br) on 2018-01-03T20:21:46Z No. of bitstreams: 1 A aplicação do REIDI em empreendimentos do setor energético e sua contribuição à economia verde e ao desenvolvimento sustentável.pdf: 1812340 bytes, checksum: 5e99cf809653b3860992620ffde62b7a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Maria Lucia Martins Frederico null (mlucia@fca.unesp.br) on 2018-01-08T11:19:28Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 rubio lampkowski, jc_me_bot.pdf: 1812340 bytes, checksum: 5e99cf809653b3860992620ffde62b7a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-01-08T11:19:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 rubio lampkowski, jc_me_bot.pdf: 1812340 bytes, checksum: 5e99cf809653b3860992620ffde62b7a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-11-30 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O mundo globalizado e tecnológico vem estimulando cada vez mais a crescente demanda por consumo de eletricidade. Para diminuir esse consumo irrestrito, cada país tem usado de políticas de incentivos para permitir a demanda através de um processo verde e sustentável. No Brasil, com a necessidade de estimular o aquecimento da economia e o desenvolvimento da infraestrutura do país frente ao mundo, o REIDI - Regime Especial de Incentivos ao Desenvolvimento de Infraestrutura - surge, por meio de incentivos fiscais, para encorajar as empresas privadas a investir na autoria de projetos relacionados à infraestrutura do setor de energia no Brasil. Os projetos de habilitação e co-habilitação das empresas ao REIDI reúnem, além de empreendimentos voltados para a exploração de fontes de energia renováveis, também uma oportunidade para expandir o bem-estar social, econômico e ambiental da nação. Este trabalho objetivou compreender como o papel das iniciativas político tributárias no desenvolvimento do REIDI influencia os projetos do setor energético que envolvem fontes renováveis de energia à expansão de atividades econômicas de baixo impacto ambiental no Brasil. Desenvolveu-se uma pesquisa descritiva e exploratória, com abordagem qualitativa, baseada em questionários estruturados e direcionados para as empresas habilitadas e co-habilitadas no REIDI, bem como para o Ministério de Minas e Energia e também para um empreendimento não-utilizador do REIDI, porém voltado à área de fontes renováveis de energia. Constatou-se que, por meio dos procedimentos determinados para o processo de habilitação e co-habilitação ao REIDI, as empresas têm investido em projetos voltados à infraestrutura para geração, cogeração, transmissão e distribuição de energia elétrica para todo o Brasil, utilizando do benefício fiscal de suspensão de PIS/PASEP e COFINS incidentes sobre as receitas decorrentes de venda de maquinário e demais equipamentos, serviços, locação de máquinas, entres outros, para utilização em obras de infraestrutura destinadas ao seu ativo imobilizado. Além disso, notou-se que a Lei instituidora e o Decreto regulamentar do REIDI necessitam de atualização, de modo a garantir a paridade com às políticas internacionais de incentivos às energias renováveis, economia verde e sustentabilidade aplicadas por países com alto IDH. / The globalized and technological world is increasingly stimulating the growing demand for electricity consumption. To reduce this unrestricted consumption, each country has using policies of incentive to enable demand through a green and sustainable process. In Brazil, with the need to stimulate the warming of the economy and the development of the country's infrastructure facing the world ones, REIDI - Special Regime for Incentives for Infrastructure Development - arises, by means of tax incentives, to encourage private companies to invest on the authorship of projects related to the infrastructure of the energy sector in Brazil. The projects of qualified and co-qualified companies to REIDI bring together, besides enterprises dedicated to the exploration of renewable energy sources, also an opportunity to enhance the social, economic and environmental wellfare of the nation. This work aimed to understand how the role of tax policy initiatives in the development of REIDI can bear on the energy sector projects that involve renewable sources of energy to increase the economic activities within a low environmental impact to Brazil. A descriptive and exploratory research was developed, with a qualitative approach, based on structured questionnaires which were forwarded to the qualified and co-qualified companies on REIDI, as well as to the Ministry of Mines and Energy, also to a non-user enterprise of REIDI, but which has a infraestructure activity on renewable energy sources. It was ascertained that, as a result of the established procedures for the process of qualification and co-qualification to REIDI, companies have invested in infrastructure projects for the generation, cogeneration, transmission and distribution of electricity throughout Brazil, using the fiscal benefit named as suspension of PIS / PASEP and COFINS focused on income generation from sales of machineries and other equipments, services, leasing of machines, among others, invested on the infrastructure works as its fixed assets. In addition, it was noted that the REIDI Implementing Law and Superior Executive Decree need to be updated in order to ensure parity with the international policies of incentives for renewable energies, green economy and sustainability already applied by countries with the highest HDI. / 1547445

Orientador: Pedro Magalhães Sobrinho / Banca: Alex Mendonça Bimbato / Banca: Paulo Armando Panunzio / Resumo: O emprego de centrífugas tipo batelada numa usina sucroalcooleira é feito a partir de dados disponibilizados pelos fabricantes dos equipamentos, em função, basicamente, da capacidade produtiva de cada máquina e da sua eficiência energética. Grande parte das unidades sucroalcoleiras em atividade no país ainda operam com máquinas antigas, de pequeno porte, com baixa eficiência energética, com acionamento por motores multi-polos comandados por contatores para variação da velocidade. Até a década passada as usinas produtoras de açúcar e etanol geravam energia apenas o suficiente para seu auto consumo; com os incentivos do governo federal através de programas como o Proinfa, as usinas foram motivadas a comercializar seu excedente de energia para o SIN, possibilitando o aumento de suas receitas. Pelo fato de produzir sua própria energia através da queima do bagaço, praticamente não havia preocupação com os equipamentos de baixa eficiência energética que operavam nestas plantas, porém, a partir da possibilidade da comercialização do excedente de energia foi necessário um trabalho para melhorar o desempenho energético dos equipamentos de maior consumo. Deste modo, a proposta deste trabalho consiste na análise comparativa da substituição de centrífugas antigas por centrífugas modernas (considerando o dimensionamento adequado em função do processo e dos limites operacionais de cada máquina), com foco tanto nos resultados técnicos, quanto produtivos e financeiros do investimento. As cen... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The use of batch centrifuges in a sugar mills is based on data provided by the equipment manufacturers, basically due to the production capacity of each machine and its energy efficiency. Most of the sugar-alcohol units in operation in the country still operate with old machines, small, with low energy efficiency, driven by multi-pole motors driven by contactors for speed variation. Until the past decade, sugar and ethanol-only plants that produced only enough energy for their own consumption, with the federal government's incentives through programs like Proinfa, the mills were motivated to market their surplus energy to SIN. Thus enabling an increase in its revenue. Because it produced its own energy through the burning of the bagasse, there was practically no concern with the low energy efficiency equipment that operated in these plants, from the possibility of the commercialization of surplus energy, a work was needed to improve the energy performance of the equipment Consumption. Thus, the proposal of this work consists of the comparative analysis of the replacement of old centrifuges by modern centrifuges (considering the adequate design depending on the process and the operational limits of each machine), focusing both on technical and productive and financial investment results. The proposed centrifuges have high efficiency motor driven by a regenerative frequency inverter, which allows the generation of energy by the machine itself during the deceleration stage and as it is a cyclic process the return of energy to the network is done repeatedly every cycle. The proposed optimization model was validated from application data in existing projects, with results compatible with what was effectively implemented, the pay-back has ability to pay for the deployment of a new machine per year, only with the financial return of the gain in electric power / Mestre

Thesis (Master of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering)--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / Transparent conductive oxides (TCOs), which are widely used in transparent electronics, possess a spectral selectivity that is suitable for a solar material absorber. TCO materials have a plasma wavelength in the infrared region. Consequently electromagnetic waves shorter than a plasma wavelength are transmitted through the material, while longer electromagnetic waves are reflected on the surface. In contrast to the opaque solar selective absorbers, the plasma wavelength in TCO materials can be easily tuned by controlling the heavy doping process to match the peak shift of thermal radiation at higher temperatures. Furthermore, the use of TCO in conjunction with a solar absorber relaxes the spectral selectivity of the latter and thus widens the selection of the solar absorber; subsequently the only requirement is a thermally stable black body. Aluminum doped Zinc Oxide (AZO) is a class of TCO materials which is cost effective to manufacture due to abundance ZnO, and Aluminum raw materials. This thesis is based on the synthesis of Al doped ZnO thin films nanostructure using radio frequency RF magnetron sputtering process. The influence of the deposition parameters, including argon working pressure and substrate temperature, on the structural and optical properties of the AZO thin films is investigated by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and optical spectroscopy (UV-VIS-NIR). The optical constants of AZO films are extracted from transmittance and reflectance spectra using a combination of Drude and Lorentz dielectric function model. A computer simulation is developed to calculate the radiative properties of Al doped ZnO thin films nanostructure. The thermal emittance and solar absorptance is predicted indirectly from optical reflectance and transmittance of AZO films by invoking Kirchhoff’s law. A Special attention has been paid to the parameters that influence the spectral properties of the AZO films including carrier’s mobility, Al doping concentration and film thickness. Carrier’s mobility turned out to have the most significant influence on the spectrally selective performance of AZO films.

Microbial fuel cell (MFC) systems capable of both treating wastewaters and recovering energy have the potential for successful scale-up as a low carbon technology. These systems utilize microorganisms residing in biofilms as biocatalytic agents in the conversion of reduced substrates to electrical energy. As such, it is important to understand how MFC anodic biofilms develop over time and also how environmental parameters such as substrate type, temperature, carbon support material, anode architecture and optimized applied potentials also affect electrogenic performance. The type of substrate was found to have a large impact on the acclimation and performance of electrogenic biofilms. Acetate produced the highest power density of 7.2 W m 3 and butyrate the lowest at 0.29 W m"3, but it was also found that biofilm acclimation to these different trophic conditions also determined the MFC response to different substrate types i.e. both acetate and butyrate substrates produced power densities of 1.07 and 1.0 W m"3 respectively in a sucrose enriched reactor. The use of MFCs for wastewater treatment in temperate regions requires the development of reactor systems that are robust to seasonal fluctuations and are energy efficient. As such, system performance was examined at three different operating temperatures (10°C, 20°C and 35°C). At each temperature a maximum steady-state voltage of 0.49 V ± 0.02V was achieved after an operational period of 47 weeks, with the time to reach steady-state voltage being dependent on acclimation temperature. The highest COD removal rates of 2.98g COD L^d * were produced in the 35°C reactor but coulombic efficiencies (CE) were found to be significantly higher at pyschrophilic temperatures. Acclimation at different operating temperatures was found to a have a significant effect on the dynamic selection of psychrophilic, psychrotolerant and mesophilic anode respiring bacteria (ARB) and also influence the development of biofilm biomass, methanogenesis and electrogenic activity. Although start-up times were inversely influenced by temperature the amount of biomass accumulation increased with higher operational temperatures and this had a direct impact on biocatalytic performance. The three dimensional structure and porosity of different carbon anode materials affected anodic performance by determining the levels of surface area available for biofilm growth and the capacity for mass transfer to occur. Novel helical electrode configurations were used to look at the effect of altering turbulent flows to increase mass transfer rates and carbon surface areas available for electrogenic growth. The spiral with the highest amount of carbon veil and the smallest gap produced the highest power production of 11.63 W m"3 . Comparative studies of a logic controlled and un-controlled external load impedance showed that control affected the biocatalyst development and hence MFC performance. The controlled MFC better optimized the electrogenic anodic biofilm for power production, indicating that improved power and substrate conversion can be achieved by ensuring sustainable current demand, applied microbial selection pressures and near-optimal impedance for power transference.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-06-17T19:33:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2014-12-05. Added 1 bitstream(s) on 2015-06-18T12:48:21Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000829840.pdf: 752028 bytes, checksum: 705e35361954fbc4b3820623ecfcc0a8 (MD5) / Os sistemas de transmissão em todo o mundo, que foram projetados e construídos para operar, predominantemente, com geração síncrona convencional, como a geração hídrica. Entretanto, agora se faz necessária a integração de energia renovável, tais como a energia eólica e energia solar. Estes geradores de energias renováveis estão localizados em locais ricos em recursos, causando uma injeções de potência em sistemas de transmissão, submetendo-os a indevidos esforços e obrigando-os a operar em novos pontos de operação. Em muitos sistemas de transmissão, a capacidade de integração se aproximou do limite, sendo necessárias atualizações para acomodar uma maior penetração de geração eólica. Os exemplos podem ser vistas na Alemanha, Ontario (Canadá) e Texas. Nestas situações, onde as capacidades do sistema de transmissão estão próximas do limite de operação, é importante para avaliar a estabilidade de tensão, considerando (a) a geração eólica e (b) possível efeito da incerteza na previsão. Neste trabalho, é proposta uma abordagem sistemática para estabilidade de tensão. Com a utilização de um algoritmo de fluxo de potência ótimo e da construção da matriz hessiana, será determinada a relação entre as mudanças nos valores mínimos singulares do sistema Jacobiano e as mudanças na injeção de potência no barramento em tempo real. Esta relação é usada para examinar o efeito da incerteza da previsão de energia eólica na estabilidade de tensão. O método proposto é usado para estudar os efeitos da incerteza sobre a estabilidade de tensão dos sistemas 6-barras, 57-barras e 118-barras do IEEE; do Sistema Sul Brasileiro reduzido e também foi usado um sistema real 600 barras. Os resultados são detalhados nesta tese / Transmission Systems worldwide, that were designed and built to operate with predominantly conventional synchronous generation, are advancing to integrate large amounts of renewable energy generators. These renewable generators are sited at resource-rich locations, causing a geographical shift in power injections into transmission systems, subjecting them to undue stress and making them operate in new states. In many transmission systems, capacities to integrate wind resource are exhausted or are being upgraded to accommodate higher wind generation penetration. Examples may be seen in Germany, Ontario (Canada) and Texas. In these situations, where transmission system capacities have been reached, it is important to assess voltage stability by considering (a) wind generation and (b) possible effect of uncertainty in forecast. In this work, a systematic approach of studying voltage stability is proposed. Using an optimal power flow algorithm, the Hessianmatrix of power balance equations is determined that relates changes in minimum singular values of system Jacobian to changes in bus-wise real power injections. This relationship is used to examine effect of uncertainty of wind power forecast on voltage stability. The proposed method is used to study the effects of uncertainty on system voltage stability of 6-bus, 57-bus and 118-bus IEEE and 45-bus South Brazilian test systems, for the real analyses is used 600-bus and results are reported. Considering the simplification of computation, the proposed method has a clear advantage compared to the conventional Jacobian technique using repeated OPF solutions

Made available in DSpace on 2015-08-20T17:10:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2015-05-22. Added 1 bitstream(s) on 2015-08-20T17:25:38Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000844833.pdf: 3606758 bytes, checksum: da6f3bb05dccdc38f1702ceb80a540e3 (MD5) / A bioenergia é uma das alternativas para diminuir a dependência de combustíveis fósseis da matriz energética mundial. Nos últimos anos, diversas agências e centros de pesquisa, principalmente na Europa e nos Estados Unidos, estão incentivando projetos para geração de energia a partir da biomassa. Os sistemas florestais de curta rotação (SFCR) surgem como uma opção interessante para produção de biomassa em curto espaço de tempo (1 a 3 anos após o plantio). Atualmente, essa biomassa está sendo utilizada na forma de cavacos para queima direta em caldeiras ou processada em briquetes e pellets. O objetivo principal da pesquisa foi realizar a caracterização das propriedades físicas e químicas das frações da biomassa florestal para combustão direta, por meio das análises de composição química elementar, imediata e estrutural, macro e micronutrientes, poder calorífico superior, densidade básica e energética da madeira. Adicionalmente, avaliou-se também o efeito do espaçamento de plantio e da dose de adubação nas propriedades: massa seca, potencial energético e exportação de nutrientes. Para isso, foram avaliados sistemas florestais de curta rotação de um clone híbrido interespecífico (C219) de Eucalyptus urophylla e Eucalyptus grandis em duas situações distintas de espaçamento de plantio (2,8m x 1,5m e 2,8m x 0,5m) e duas doses de adubação. A biomassa coletada foi fracionada em três partes, sendo elas: fuste (madeira com casca), galhos e folhas. Constatou-se que o espaçamento e a adubação influenciaram pouco as propriedades físicas e químicas da biomassa florestal e a maior diferença ocorreu entre as frações da biomassa. Destaque para os altos valores do poder calorífico superior (22,2 MJ.kg-1), extrativos totais (37,9%) e cinzas (3,1%) das folhas em relação à madeira, que obteve poder calorífico superior de 18,9 MJ.kg-1, extrativos totais ... / Bioenergy is one of the alternatives to reduce the dependence of global energy on fossil fuels. In recent years, several agencies and research centers, mainly in Europe and the United States, are encouraging projects for energy production from biomass. The short rotation forestry (SRF) appears as an interesting option for biomass production in a short time (1-3 years after planting). Currently, this biomass is used as chips for direct burning in boilers or processed as briquettes and pellets. The main objective of the research was to characterize the physical and chemical properties of the fractions of forest biomass to direct combustion, through analyses from ultimate, proximate and structural chemical compositions, macro and micronutrients, heating value, basic and energy density of wood. Additionally also evaluated the effect of spacing of planting and fertilizer dose on the properties: dry matter, energy potential and nutrient export. For this, a short rotation forestry of a hybrid clone (C219) of Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis was studied in two different situations of plantation spacing (2,8m x 1,5m and 2,8m x 0,5m) and fertilizer levels. The collected biomass was fractionated into three parts: trunk, branches and leaves. Additionally, it was evaluated the effect of spacing of planting and fertilizer levels in properties, dry matter, energetic potential and nutrients exports. It was found that the spacing and fertilization had a little influenced in the physical and chemical properties of forest biomass and the largest difference occurred between the biomass fractions. Especially, the higher heating value (22,2 MJ.kg-1), extractives (37,9%) and ash (3,1%) of leaves compared with the wood that obtained 18,9 MJ.kg-1 for the higher heating value, 2% for extractives and 1,1% for ashes. For dry matter, energy potential and nutrients exports were more affected by variation factors ...

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-02T11:16:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2014-03-07Bitstream added on 2014-12-02T11:20:50Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000796432.pdf: 2742498 bytes, checksum: 09b36b02c6140a3459c1567ce5096e34 (MD5) / Neste trabalho apresenta-se uma proposta para alocação de fontes renováveis em microrredes de energia elétrica para sistemas autônomos em corrente contínua através de um modelo matemático escrito como um problema quadrático inteiro misto (PQIM). O propósito do modelo matemático é minimizar os investimentos na instalação das fontes renováveis de energia e os custos relacionados com as perdas elétricas, atendendo as restrições de demandas de potências do sistema, limite da queda de tensão, capacidade de corrente dos condutores, máxima potência gerada pelo tipo de fonte renovável de energia alocada, capacidade máxima do número de fontes renováveis de energia a serem alocados em cada nó do sistema em estudo. Para resolver o problema foram utilizadas duas técnicas de solução. Primeiramente, foi usado o algoritmo de Branch and Bound (B&B) com a implementação do problema através da linguagem de modelagem algébrico (AMPL) e solucionado através do solver de otimização CPLEX, posteriormente o PQIM foi resolvido através do algoritmo genético Chu-Beasley implementado no MATrix LABoratory (MATLAB). Para o algoritmo de B&B implementou-se um método de redução do espaço de busca (EBCR), a fim de diminuir o tempo computacional. Para a validação do modelo matemático proposto, utilizou-se sistemas testes reais de 20, 99 e 297 nós, os quais são parte de um projeto de iluminação pública de um loteamento de residências populares do município de Ilha Solteira - SP, considerando alimentação em corrente contínua / This study mainly presents a proposal for allocation of renewable energy sources in a microgrid for autonomous electric systems that uses direct current through a mathematical model written as a mixed integer quadratic problem ( PQIM ). The purpose of the mathematical model is to minimize the investment at the renewable energy installation and the costs related to electrical losses, attending the restrictions of system powers demands, the voltage drop limit, the current capacity of conductors, the maximum power generated by type of renewable energy allocated, the maximum capacity of the number of renewable energy sources to be allocated on each node of the system under study. To solve the problem two solution techniques were used. First, was used the Branch and Bound algorithm (B&B) with the implementation of the problem through the language of algebraic modeling (AMPL) and solved by the solver optimization CPLEX , subsequently the PQIM was solved through Chu-Beasley genetic algorithm implemented in Matrix Laboratory (MATLAB). For the B&B algorithm, was implemented a method for reducing the search space(EBCR) in order to reduce computational time . To validate the proposed mathematical model , was used a real test system with 20, 99 and 297 nodes, which is part of a project of public lighting of a popular residential subdivision in Ilha Solteira - SP , considering power in direct current