The thesis deals with renewable resources, their history, development and support with special emphases on photovoltaics. The thesis turns to particular selected states, where the level and forms of support of renewables are analysed, again with emphases on photovoltaics. The thesis contains a chapter dealing with the support of photovoltaics in the Czech Republic, to which refers the applied part of the thesis -- the build-up of photovoltaic power plant in the Czech Republic in year 2008 in comparison with the one realised in 2010 from the cost-profit point of view.

With power system restructuring, continuous growth of demand, and deregulation, small, scattered generators referred to as Distributed Generation (DG) are predicted to play a key role in the power distribution system. Moreover, among the different types of DG units, it is widely accepted that renewable DG units are the key to a sustainable energy supply infrastructure, since they are both inexhaustible and non-polluting. However the intermittent nature and the uncertainties associated with the renewable resources create special technical and economical challenges that have to be comprehensively investigated in order to facilitate the deployment of these DG units in the distribution system. The objective of the work proposed in this thesis is to tackle some of the challenges associated with the increased penetration of renewable DG units into existing distribution systems. This includes the study of the impact of different renewable DG units on the supply adequacy of the distribution system, and the development of planning technique that optimally allocate renewable DG units into the distribution system. Furthermore, a methodology is proposed to check the feasibility of implementing energy storage system (ESS) into the distribution system to mitigate the problems associated with the high penetration of renewable DG units. These problems include the maximum reverse power flow limit, the equipment rating limit, and the voltage limit on each bus. The first step toward the accomplishment of this work is to model the random behaviour of the renewable resources (i.e. wind speed and solar irradiance). Here, different approaches are proposed to model the random behaviour of both wind speed and solar irradiance, either chronologically or probabilistically. Among those approaches are a novel technique of annual wind speed estimation based on a constrained Grey predictor, and a new implementation of the probability density function (pdf) of the clearness index so as to model solar irradiance using Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS). Supply adequacy of distribution systems is assessed based on well-being criteria during different modes of operation (i.e. grid-connected mode and islanding mode), using analytical and (MCS) techniques. During the grid-connected mode, from the load perspective, the substation transformers act as generating units. Therefore, supply adequacy of distribution systems is assessed by considering that the generating units of the distribution system are the substation transformers and the DG units. During the islanding mode of operation, the island is acting as a small autonomous power system (SAPS) and the most important issue during this mode of operation is to determine the probability of the island to be successful (the DG power output within the island matches the load) or a failure (there is a deficit in power generation). The focus of the model developed to optimally allocate the renewable DG units in existing distribution systems is to minimize annual energy losses and at the same time, avoid any violation of the system constraints under any operating condition. The methodology is based on generating a probabilistic generation-load model that combines all possible operating conditions of the renewable DG units with their probabilities, hence accommodating this model in a deterministic planning problem. The objective function of the planning formulation is to minimize annual energy losses; whereas the constraints include the voltage limits, the feeders’ capacity, the maximum penetration limit, and the discrete size of the available DG units. The objective of the methodology proposed for allocating an ESS into distribution systems with high penetration (greater than 20% of the feeder capacity) of renewable energy is to maximize the benefits for both the DG owner and the utility. This is done by sizing the ESS to accommodate the entire surplus of renewable energy, and then allocating it within the system in order to minimize the annual cost of the electricity.

With power system restructuring, continuous growth of demand, and deregulation, small, scattered generators referred to as Distributed Generation (DG) are predicted to play a key role in the power distribution system. Moreover, among the different types of DG units, it is widely accepted that renewable DG units are the key to a sustainable energy supply infrastructure, since they are both inexhaustible and non-polluting. However the intermittent nature and the uncertainties associated with the renewable resources create special technical and economical challenges that have to be comprehensively investigated in order to facilitate the deployment of these DG units in the distribution system. The objective of the work proposed in this thesis is to tackle some of the challenges associated with the increased penetration of renewable DG units into existing distribution systems. This includes the study of the impact of different renewable DG units on the supply adequacy of the distribution system, and the development of planning technique that optimally allocate renewable DG units into the distribution system. Furthermore, a methodology is proposed to check the feasibility of implementing energy storage system (ESS) into the distribution system to mitigate the problems associated with the high penetration of renewable DG units. These problems include the maximum reverse power flow limit, the equipment rating limit, and the voltage limit on each bus. The first step toward the accomplishment of this work is to model the random behaviour of the renewable resources (i.e. wind speed and solar irradiance). Here, different approaches are proposed to model the random behaviour of both wind speed and solar irradiance, either chronologically or probabilistically. Among those approaches are a novel technique of annual wind speed estimation based on a constrained Grey predictor, and a new implementation of the probability density function (pdf) of the clearness index so as to model solar irradiance using Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS). Supply adequacy of distribution systems is assessed based on well-being criteria during different modes of operation (i.e. grid-connected mode and islanding mode), using analytical and (MCS) techniques. During the grid-connected mode, from the load perspective, the substation transformers act as generating units. Therefore, supply adequacy of distribution systems is assessed by considering that the generating units of the distribution system are the substation transformers and the DG units. During the islanding mode of operation, the island is acting as a small autonomous power system (SAPS) and the most important issue during this mode of operation is to determine the probability of the island to be successful (the DG power output within the island matches the load) or a failure (there is a deficit in power generation). The focus of the model developed to optimally allocate the renewable DG units in existing distribution systems is to minimize annual energy losses and at the same time, avoid any violation of the system constraints under any operating condition. The methodology is based on generating a probabilistic generation-load model that combines all possible operating conditions of the renewable DG units with their probabilities, hence accommodating this model in a deterministic planning problem. The objective function of the planning formulation is to minimize annual energy losses; whereas the constraints include the voltage limits, the feeders’ capacity, the maximum penetration limit, and the discrete size of the available DG units. The objective of the methodology proposed for allocating an ESS into distribution systems with high penetration (greater than 20% of the feeder capacity) of renewable energy is to maximize the benefits for both the DG owner and the utility. This is done by sizing the ESS to accommodate the entire surplus of renewable energy, and then allocating it within the system in order to minimize the annual cost of the electricity.

Introducción y antecedentes El concepto de desarrollo sostenible surgió como idea principal tras la reunión de la comisión Brundtland en 1987. Esta reunión fue organizada por Naciones Unidas con el fin de tratar el deterioro del medio ambiente, originado por el desarrollo descontrolado de la humanidad. El desarrollo sostenible fue definido como un avance social y económico que asegure una vida sana y productiva al ser humano, pero que no comprometa las posibilidades de desarrollo de las generaciones venideras. Entre las conclusiones alcanzadas, se resaltó la necesitad de disponer de una mayor variedad de fuentes de energía. La filosofía de esta cumbre fue recogida en Agenda 21, un documento que pretendía servir como guía general de actuación para alcanzar un desarrollo sostenible a todos los niveles. Respecto a las ciencias, Agenda 21 subrayaba la necesidad de emplear todo el conocimiento científico en la consecución de los objetivos del desarrollo sostenible. En este sentido, la Environmental Protection Agency acuñó en 1998 un término, Green Chemistry, que reunía estas ideas y las aplicaba a la química a través de 12 principios que debían ser cumplidos en el camino hacia una química sostenible. Entre estos principios, el uso de fuentes renovables para la obtención de materias primas ha adquirido gran relevancia debido a las previsiones de agotamiento de una de las fuentes de energía y materias primas más importantes: el petróleo. Los aceites vegetales se incluyen entre estas fuentes renovables de materias primas, siendo actualmente una de las fuentes renovables más utilizadas por la industria química. Los aceites vegetales están básicamente compuestos por triglicéridos, que son moléculas formadas por glicerol y tres ácidos grasos. En general los ácidos grasos pueden ser completamente saturados o contener varios dobles enlaces que en algunos casos pueden encontrarse conjugados, pero también existen ácidos grasos que contienen grupos hidroxilo o epóxido. Cada aceite vegetal posee una distribución característica de ácidos grasos que determina sus propiedades físicas y químicas. En lo que respecta a la química de los polímeros, los aceites vegetales constituyen una atractiva materia prima debido a la amplia gama de transformaciones químicas que pueden llevarse a cabo para sintetizar monómeros de diversa naturaleza. La epoxidación de los dobles enlaces internos es la transformación más común, ya que permite, a través de la apertura del anillo oxiránico con diferentes reactivos, la introducción de una gran variedad de grupos funcionales. Los dobles enlaces internos pueden polimerizarse directamente en condiciones térmicas, con iniciadores de radicales o por polimerización catiónica. / Introducction The sustainable development concept came out of the United Nations Commision on Environment and Development in 1987 (Bruntland Commission) and it is defined as "the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". From this point, both the society and the industry have considered what a sustainable development really means and the best ways to start to achieve it from their own standpoints. The principles of the United Nations Conference on environment and Development (UNCED) held in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, and Agenda 21, were formulated with the aim of preparing the world for the challenges of the 21st century. In this context, during the early 1990s the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) coined the phrase Green Chemistry "To promote innovative chemical technologies that reduce or eliminate the use of generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and use of chemical products". The main challenges of Green Chemistry and Engineeiring can be summarized as: · utilizing renewable instead of scarce resources. · avoiding toxic/dangerous chemicals in safer processes to obtain safer products. · minimizing energy use. · minimizing waste and resource use, re-using products, recovering and recycling materials. So making processes globally more efficient. Plant oils are one of the most widely applied renewable raw materials in the chemical industry for non-fuel applications. Vegetable oils are triglycerides (tri-esters of glycerol with long-chain fatty acids) with varying composition of fatty acids depending on the plant they are extracted from. Depending on the composition of plant oils, their Chemicals and physical properties are different.Vegetable oils are very used in polymer chemistry. Triglycerides have different reactive points through which we can obtain polymers from plant oils.There are two main approaches:The first one is the chemical modification of the triglycerides obtaining a large number of polymerizable monomers like expoxides or alcohols. The second approach is the direct polymerization of the carbon-carbon doubles bonds of plant oils through a free radical or a cationic mechanism.The free radical polymerization of double bonds has received less attention than cationic mechanism which has been very studied by Larock's group.In both cases thermosetting polymers with comparable properties to those of industrial can be obtained. Because of increasing use of synthetic polymeric materials during the lasts decades and the large fraction of the fire load in homes, it is necessary the use of fire retardants to reduce combustibility of the polymers, and smoke or toxic fume production. To get these requirements, the development of effective flame retardant materials is a key factor. To reduce the flammability, flame retardants can act in the gas phase or in condensed phase. In the gas phase fire retardants act as scavengers of the highly reactive radical species that propagate the combustion. In the condensed-phase fire retardants interfere in the thermal degradation processes modifying the reaction pathways and promoting the formation of char instead of volatile degradation products. Finally some flame retardants can act in both phases. Objectives The main objective of this Thesis was to develop new fire retardant biobased thermosets from vegetable oils as renewable resources. To achieve this goal it was carried out the cationic copolymerization of soybean oil, styrene and divinylbenzene with different silicon-or boron-or phosphorus containing comonomers.

In der Broschüre werden Anbau, Umweltwirkungen und Verwertungsmöglichkeiten des Miscanthus erläutert. Miscanthus, auch Chinaschilf genannt, ist eine sehr massenwüchsige Pflanze, die zur Familie der Süßgräser gehört. Die Pflanze ist ein bedeutender Rohstoff für die stoffliche und energetische Verwertung. Unter den Standortbedingungen Sachsens gedeiht Miscanthus gut und liefert wirtschaftliche Erträge. Die Broschüre richtet sich an Landwirte als Rohstoffproduzenten, aber auch an Nutzer und Verarbeiter des nachwachsenden Rohstoffs.

Auf arsen- und schwermetallbelasteten Böden im Raum Freiberg/Sachsen erfolgten Kalkdüngungsversuche und der Anbau von Weiden und Pappeln zur energetischen Verwertung. Nach der Kalkung auf Acker- und Grünlandflächen nahm der pflanzenverfügbare Anteil an Cadmium und Blei im Oberboden ab, nicht jedoch bei Arsen. Obwohl der Boden des Grünlandes hoch mit Blei und Arsen belastet war, wurde der Futtermittelgrenzwert nur vereinzelt bei Arsen und teilweise bei Cadmium überschritten. Bei Cadmium wurden erst mit zunehmendem pH-Wert und damit sinkendem pflanzenverfügbaren Anteil an Cadmium die Grenzwerte eingehalten. Die Kurzumtriebsplantage mit Pappeln und Weiden erreichte sehr gute Erträge. Sie lagen nach drei Anbaujahren bei 6,3 t TM/ha*a und nach weiteren zwei Jahren bei 16 t TM/ha*a. Weiden nahmen im Vergleich zu Pappeln die dreifache Menge an Cadmium und Zink auf. Die Einlagerung erfolgt insbesondere in den Blättern. Die belasteten Brennstoffe wurden in Feuerungsanlagen energetisch verwertet, die Aschen analysiert. Die Vergasung von Miscanthuspellets in einer zirkulierenden Wirbelschicht erfolgte problemlos.

Entlang eines offenen Ackerschlages wurde im Lehr- und Versuchsgut Köllitsch bei Torgau (Sachsen) zu Demonstrationszwecken ein Feldstreifen aus Pappeln, Weiden und Schwarzerlen angelegt. Untersucht wurden Bestandsentwicklung, Wirtschaftlichkeit und die ökologische Wirkung. Um die positiven Effekte des Feldstreifens auf das Landschaftsbild, den Winderosionsschutz und auf die Biodiversität aufrechtzuerhalten, wurden nach drei Vegetationsjahren nur zwei von insgesamt vier Reihen geerntet. Die höchsten Erträge der insgesamt sieben Pappelsorten zeigten die Pappelsorten »Max 4«, »Max 3« und »Max 1« (je ca. 9 t TM/ha*a), gefolgt von der Sorte »Androscoggin«. Deutlich schwächer schnitt die Weidensorte »Gigantea« ab. Der Anbau der Pappelsorte »Beaupré« ist wegen der Anfälligkeit für Pappelrost nicht zu empfehlen. Bei der Weide wird bei vollmechanisierter Ernte mit Feldhäcksler, 21 Jahren Standzeit und dreijährigem Umtrieb bei 12.000 Pflanzen je Hektar und einem Ertrag von 10 t TM/ha*a ein Erlös von 478 Euro/ha*a (133 Euro ohne Zahlungsansprüche) erzielt. Das Ergebnis verbessert sich bei geringerer Pflanzdichte, dreijährigem Umtrieb oder höherem Ertrag. Das Ergebnis bei Anbau von Pappel liegt bei gleichen Annahmen auf Grund der höheren Pflanzgutkosten unter dem von Weide. Der Anbau ist eine wirtschaftlich sinnvolle Ergänzung zu den etablierten einjährigen landwirtschaftlichen Kulturen. Floristische und faunistische Erhebungen belegen, dass die Feldstreifen einen Lebensraum für diverse Pflanzen der Ruderal- und Ackerflora sowie gefährdete Spinnen und Laufkäfer bietet. Der ökologische Wert eines Feldstreifens liegt über dem einjähriger Feldkulturen, aber erreicht nicht den einer Naturschutzhecke.

Mit mehreren Pappelsorten und einer Weidensorte wurde im mitteldeutschen Trockengebiet eine Kurzumtriebsplantage (KUP) angelegt. Auf der 10 ha großen Fläche im Lehr- und Versuchsgut Köllitsch (Sachsen) konnten trotz differenzierter Anwuchsprobleme und des Auftretens verschiedener Schädlinge bei Pappeln nach einer Standzeit von drei Jahren bis zu 7 t TM/ha*a (»Hybride 275«, »Max«) geerntet werden. Die Weidensorte »Inger« erzielte nach vier Standjahren bis zu 5,2 t TM/ha*a. Die Wachstumsparameter und Erträge werden deutlich durch die Bodenqualität beeinflusst. Der Bericht fasst die Erfahrungen und Schlussfolgerungen aus Anlage, Pflege, Ernte und Trocknung der KUP zusammen. Nach der Teilbeerntung erfolgte die Trocknung in einer Miete vor Ort im sog. Dombelüftungsverfahren. Die Wirtschaftlichkeit wurde in Abhängigkeit von Nutzungsdauer, Umtriebszeit, Pflanzdichte, maschineller Ernte mit Feldhäcksler und Ertrag, inkl. Zahlungsanspruch kalkuliert.

Resume in English language Solar energy and its financial and legal aspects The topic of this thesis is the production of electricity from solar light and its legislation in the Czech Republic and European Union. The objective of this thesis is to analyse the whole development since the year 2005 until today, because it is full of interesting aspects. After the introduction the first part of this thesis is focused on the legislation of the European Union, which created foundation for Czech laws, i.e. Directives 2001/77/EC and 2009/28/EC. It is followed by the analysis of Czech laws, which were valid at that time, especially the Act no. 180/2005 Coll., and the Act no. 458/2008 Sb., Energy Act. As for the Energy Act, there is also added part about its current amendment and also the Act on income taxes is mentioned. Following part is focused on the solar boom, its causes and consequences. Because of the fact that the implemented solutions has provoked large discussions, this chapter is focused also on individual implemented solutions. Third part of the thesis is crucial and it is focused on the analysis of key court decisions in this field, i.e. three main court decisions, which are related to the solar tax. Those are interesting decisions of the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Administrative Court of the...

Möjligheten att syntetisera UV-härdande bindemedel från enbart förnyelsebara startmaterial (syra A och alkohol A) eller från kombinationer av dessa med konventionella monomerer (syra B, C och D; alkohol B, C, D, E samt cyklisk ester A) utvärderades. Effekten av två katalysatorer, tenn(II)oktanoat och butyltenn, på direkt förestring och på ringöppning utvärderades. Totalt framställdes 22 polyestrar som analyserades med avseende på syratal, medelmolekylvikt (SEC), kulörindex (Gardner), och strukturell sammansättning (NMR). Bindemedlen formulerades med UV-initiator och härdades med UV-ljus. De torra filmerna utvärderades med avseende på hårdhet (pendelhårdhet), flexibilitet och kemisk resistens.   Det var möjligt att framställa polyestrar baserade på ovan nämnda monomerer. Några monomer gav bäst egenskaper med avseende på pendelhårdhet och flexibilitet medan andra byggstenar resulterade i bättre kemisk resistens.