This thesis uses cross-country panel regressions to identify the effects of fossil-fuel subsidies for both oil importers and oil exporters on GDP growth, industry growth, crowding out of government expenditures in education, health, and infrastructure, government debt, carbon dioxide emissions, inequality and poverty. Fossil-fuel subsidies are found to be associated with lower levels of growth and industry growth, less government expenditure on health and education, poorer infrastructure quality, more government debt, and higher rates of carbon dioxide emissions. No relationship is found between fossil fuel subsidies and poverty and inequality. These results confirm the arguments of those that argue that fossil-fuel subsidies should be rationalized. However, removing subsidies is politically challenging. In order to identify strategies for fossil fuel reform, the successful reform efforts of Indonesia and Turkey are examined. These cases are then used to draw lessons for governments undertaking subsidy reform. The key strategies used were to exempt some regions, groups, or fuels from reform, use funds from subsidy removal for social safety nets and other poverty alleviation programs, time the reforms strategically, and communicate clearly to the public the reason for reform and how the funds will be used. These lessons are applied to countries in the developing Middle East and North Africa, including Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco.

Drought is a well-known and costly climate-related natural hazard. Unlike other climate-related natural hazards, droughts are usually long in duration and may cover a large region, the physical boundaries of areas affected by drought are sometimes arbitrary, and the impacts are sometimes difficult to identify. Climate records since 1895 show that drought has occurred periodically in Kentucky. The drought of 2007 was the most recent drought to affect Kentucky and is the primary focus of this research. The purpose of this research is to identify impacts of drought and potential vulnerabilities to various drought impact sectors in Kentucky so that policymakers can develop a drought plan that addresses these vulnerabilities and emphasizes mitigation efforts. An historical analysis of drought was provided for the following droughts that occurred in Kentucky: 1930-31, 1940-42, 1952-55, 1987-88, and 1999-2001. A more indepth analysis of the development and impacts of the drought of 2007 was conducted. Weekly drought reports from the drought of 2007 that were published by the Kentucky Division of Water were used for analysis.The reports discussed streamflows, PDSI values, precipitation deficits, lake levels reports from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and other information that documented the progress of the drought. Impacts caused by the drought of 2007 were identified mostly through news reports. Agriculture and water supplies were determined to be most impacted by drought; therefore, two separate surveys (one regarding drought impacts on agriculture in 2007, the other regarding drought impacts on water supplies in 2007) were created to increase the understanding of how the drought of 2007 affected agriculture and water supplies in Kentucky. Other impacts from the drought of 2007 that were studied include impacts on recreation and tourism, the number of fires and wildland fires, plant and animal species, and small businesses. It was found that droughts that have affected Kentucky have originated in all directions and have spread northward, southward, eastward, and westward into Kentucky. The temporal scale of these droughts has also varied. Impacts caused by the drought of 2007 in Kentucky were very similar to impacts caused by historical droughts. However, the documentation of drought impacts that occur in Kentucky needs improvement. Agricultural impacts are documented better than any other impact, while impacts on water supplies, recreation and tourism, the occurrence of wildland fires, plant and animal species, and small businesses are not as well documented. It is recommended that conducting an extensive analysis of how various sectors are vulnerable to drought in Kentucky and educating the public on the importance of drought awareness should be addressed by policymakers involved in the development of Kentucky’s state drought plan.

This thesis provides a comparative analysis of the environmental values present in Ghana’s and Senegal’s coastal regions, and the implications that those have for the surrounding environment. The countries approaches to urban farming, mining and oil and gas extraction, fishing, marine debris and municipal waste management are assessed in order to reach a greater understanding of these environmental issues. In undertaking this thesis, I attempted to draw a correlation between the handling of these issues and how people perceive their environment. Through the comparison of environmental degradation and the level of effort to achieve a more sustainable developmental framework in both countries, I draw examples from successes in Senegal’s coastal management framework to recommend appropriate environmental policy for the Greater Accra Region.

In an attempt to achieve energy independence, rural economic development, and greenhouse gas emissions reduction, the United States has turned to fuels derived from agriculture. The U.S. Congress and Environmental Protection Agency mandated the blending of biofuels into conventional gasoline until 2022 under the Renewable Fuel Standard. However, largely missing from the discussion of biofuels is their feasibility regarding environmental protection and end-use marketing to consumers. This thesis investigates the motive for biofuel mandates in the U.S., the irony in the EPA’s decision to back a resource-exhaustive fuel source, and the questionable ability of the U.S. to supply and consume greater volumes of biofuels in the transportation sector. Barriers to consumption are outlined as increased production costs and high market fuel prices, strong political backing of traditional energy sources, and environmental implications of production on ecosystems in certain regions of the United States. By analyzing Iowa and Texas as two biofuel-producing states held in high regards for biofuel production capacity—yet varying degrees of consumption—the feasibility of reaching federal biofuel mandates and promoting this alternative fuel is determined.

This thesis investigates the social and economic factors affecting small-scale forestry development in Leyte Province, the Philippines, and in particular, the potential to use typologies of rural households to aid the description and interpretation of the diversity of households in relation to forestry development. Data for the analysis of the relationships between socioeconomic factors and tree management behaviour and intentions and the construction of a typology of rural households in Leyte was gathered from four case study communities on the Island. Following focus group discussions in each of the participating communities to gather background data and populate the structured interview schedule, representative samples of 50 households were selected and interviewed in each of the four communities. Analysis of the present tree management activities of households in the four communities revealed that most households surveyed (approximately 80%) indicated that they are presently managing at least a few trees, the primary purpose of most tree management activities being to supply timber for the households' own needs. Only 10% of respondents indicated that they intend to sell trees they are presently managing, and 25% stated that they intend to plant and manage trees for the production of timber for sale in the future. Approximately 60% of responding households indicated an interest in developing commercial tree farming on the land they manage. Thus it is concluded that small-scale commercial tree growing is uncommon in the communities involved in the survey, and that many households are interested in developing their tree planting and management activities but feel constrained from participation by various factors. The first level of exploration of the socioeconomic factors affecting rural households' tree management behaviour involved univariate analyses of the relationships between households' tree management behaviour and intentions, their socioeconomic characteristics and their attitudes to forestry. The level of resources controlled by the household, in terms of the area of the land managed by the household, their tenurial security and their cash income, are correlated with higher levels of participation in forestry activities, and greater intentions to plant higher numbers of trees in the future. Some farming system variables are also related to higher levels of tree planting and management activity, including the management of livestock and of farm plots distant from their house. While control over higher than average levels of productive resources are, in general, positively correlated to the active management of trees on their land, there are patterns of exceptions to this trend. The exploration of the interrelationships between socioeconomic factors and attitudes affecting households' tree management behaviour was undertaken through the definition of a typology of rural households in relation to forestry. Five types were defined, each having different attitudes to forestry activities. The interpretation of the types was undertaken by describing and comparing the socioeconomic and behavioural characteristics of the types in the typology. The types were characterised by differences in their control of productive resources, differences in their present and intended levels and types of forestry activity, and by differences in their participation in training activities run by development programs. The characteristics of the types were found to correspond highly with descriptions of the socioeconomic factors affecting forestry activities of smallholder households reported by previous studies into and theories about the socioeconomic factors affecting smallholder forestry development. The typology of rural households does help to describe and interpret the variation within each of the four communities in terms of households' attitudes to forestry development and their socioeconomic characteristics. It is concluded that these variations between households mean that the various types of households will be affected in different ways by forestry development programs. It is also concluded that the present state of forestry policies and the market for timber products is such that substantial increase in the level of forestry activity by smallholders is unlikely without comprehensive land use planning, policy reform in regards to tree registration and transport permits, and market development. Recommendations for further research and policy development arising from the thesis focuses on the need to create enabling conditions in which forestry activities can occur and on ways to address the differing needs of the various types defined in the typology.

No description available.

No description available.

This thesis investigates the social and economic factors affecting small-scale forestry development in Leyte Province, the Philippines, and in particular, the potential to use typologies of rural households to aid the description and interpretation of the diversity of households in relation to forestry development. Data for the analysis of the relationships between socioeconomic factors and tree management behaviour and intentions and the construction of a typology of rural households in Leyte was gathered from four case study communities on the Island. Following focus group discussions in each of the participating communities to gather background data and populate the structured interview schedule, representative samples of 50 households were selected and interviewed in each of the four communities. Analysis of the present tree management activities of households in the four communities revealed that most households surveyed (approximately 80%) indicated that they are presently managing at least a few trees, the primary purpose of most tree management activities being to supply timber for the households' own needs. Only 10% of respondents indicated that they intend to sell trees they are presently managing, and 25% stated that they intend to plant and manage trees for the production of timber for sale in the future. Approximately 60% of responding households indicated an interest in developing commercial tree farming on the land they manage. Thus it is concluded that small-scale commercial tree growing is uncommon in the communities involved in the survey, and that many households are interested in developing their tree planting and management activities but feel constrained from participation by various factors. The first level of exploration of the socioeconomic factors affecting rural households' tree management behaviour involved univariate analyses of the relationships between households' tree management behaviour and intentions, their socioeconomic characteristics and their attitudes to forestry. The level of resources controlled by the household, in terms of the area of the land managed by the household, their tenurial security and their cash income, are correlated with higher levels of participation in forestry activities, and greater intentions to plant higher numbers of trees in the future. Some farming system variables are also related to higher levels of tree planting and management activity, including the management of livestock and of farm plots distant from their house. While control over higher than average levels of productive resources are, in general, positively correlated to the active management of trees on their land, there are patterns of exceptions to this trend. The exploration of the interrelationships between socioeconomic factors and attitudes affecting households' tree management behaviour was undertaken through the definition of a typology of rural households in relation to forestry. Five types were defined, each having different attitudes to forestry activities. The interpretation of the types was undertaken by describing and comparing the socioeconomic and behavioural characteristics of the types in the typology. The types were characterised by differences in their control of productive resources, differences in their present and intended levels and types of forestry activity, and by differences in their participation in training activities run by development programs. The characteristics of the types were found to correspond highly with descriptions of the socioeconomic factors affecting forestry activities of smallholder households reported by previous studies into and theories about the socioeconomic factors affecting smallholder forestry development. The typology of rural households does help to describe and interpret the variation within each of the four communities in terms of households' attitudes to forestry development and their socioeconomic characteristics. It is concluded that these variations between households mean that the various types of households will be affected in different ways by forestry development programs. It is also concluded that the present state of forestry policies and the market for timber products is such that substantial increase in the level of forestry activity by smallholders is unlikely without comprehensive land use planning, policy reform in regards to tree registration and transport permits, and market development. Recommendations for further research and policy development arising from the thesis focuses on the need to create enabling conditions in which forestry activities can occur and on ways to address the differing needs of the various types defined in the typology.

Wik, Wik-Way and Kugu people (Wik people) in Aurukun Shire on Cape York Peninsula (CYP) are among the most socio-economically disadvantaged groups in Australia. While Wik people are presently reliant on government work for welfare programs for income, elders have a vision of economic independence and self-reliance. The large area of native Darwin stringybark (Eucalyptus tetrodonta) forest on traditional Wik land is a potential engine for economic development, which could provide meaningful employment, and contribute to other Wik socio-economic objectives, including facilitating population decentralisation and consolidation of cultural obligations to manage country through provision of on country employment, reducing welfare dependency and expenditure on timber purchases from outside CYP, and increasing income and skill levels in the community. A large proportion of the higher-quality timber resource on traditional Wik land is situated on bauxite mining leases and the current practice is to clear, windrow and burn this timber prior to commencement of mining. A Wik native forest timber industry could make use of this wasted high-quality timber resource. The objectives of this thesis were to: determine the property rights of Wik people to the timber resource on their traditional land; assess whether forestry operations in Darwin stringybark forests in the study area are likely to be financially viable; and generate a suite of optimal timber utilisation strategies for Wik people, subject to cultural, ecological and economic constraints. This required economic research in the areas of indigenous property rights, private and social costs and benefits of forestry, timber markets, and evaluation and application of economic analysis techniques for appraisal of forestry development opportunities. A social cost-benefit analysis of the privately optimal timber utilisation policies has also been performed to support the decision-making of government policy-makers. This research project was a demanding and complex undertaking, not least because the research was being performed in a unique and diverse indigenous cultural environment where there is a need to respect cultural and research ethics protocols, where formal participatory research methods are inappropriate and where gatekeepers are particularly zealous about ‘protecting’ Wik people from ‘outsiders’. In addition, the property rights of Wik people to timber resources had never previously been analysed methodically, timber inventory and timber market information was lacking for CYP, and there are difficulties in transferring parameter estimates from the industrial hardwood timber industry of Australia to culturally appropriate indigenous operations on CYP. A critical research step was to develop a rapport with Wik people and gain an insight into their forestry objectives, through a number of visits to Aurukun Shire and informal discussions with elders on country. The property rights of Wik people to timber resources have been assessed by reviewing Federal and State Government legislation, court rulings, regional development policies and the Queensland Code of Practice for Native Forest Timber Production on State-owned lands. A timber inventory was conducted over 580,000 ha of Darwin stringybark forest, individual-tree volume and taper models were developed, and a geographical information system was used in estimation of harvestable timber volume and its spatial distribution. To facilitate information transfer to Wik people, expertise was gained in the use of forest visualisation software to pictorially display timber inventory data. A review of literature and discussions with experts identified technically feasible timber processing opportunities for CYP timbers. An informal telephone and in-person survey of 46 businesses, local councils and government agencies in north and south Queensland and the Northern Territory provided market information about CYP timbers. Concepts of a culturally appropriate working week and culturally appropriate rate of production were developed to assist the estimation of cost structures for a Wik timber industry, based on cost estimates for non-indigenous Australian hardwood forestry enterprises that had been obtained from discussion with forestry experts and ‘grey literature’. Generation and evaluation of a suite of privately optimal timber utilisation strategies for Wik people has been supported by the development of a mixed-integer goal programming (GP) model using the GAMS software package. The social analysis of the privately optimal strategies has been performed by adjusting private net present values (NPV) estimated by the GP model with shadow prices and transfer payments. In particular, a carbon model has been developed to estimate the value of carbon emitted by the Wik timber industry. The GP model analysis suggests that a Wik timber industry can generate a positive financial NPV if seed funding of at least $0.5 M is available. In general, privately optimal forestry strategies for Wik people generated by the GP model utilise relatively low-technology equipment, including portable sawmills and air-drying sheds, and produce undressed timber products such as structural timber. This contrasts strongly with Wik visions of an industry selling mostly unprocessed logs or woodchips and non-indigenous representatives of Wik people favouring the manufacture of high-value strip-flooring and furniture. The social analysis of privately optimal timber utilisation strategies reveals that social NPVs are much higher than financial NPVs, even when accounting for the costs of ecosystem services foregone by logging native forest. The establishment of a culturally appropriate Wik timber industry can be expected to generate net social benefits for Australia.

Wik, Wik-Way and Kugu people (Wik people) in Aurukun Shire on Cape York Peninsula (CYP) are among the most socio-economically disadvantaged groups in Australia. While Wik people are presently reliant on government work for welfare programs for income, elders have a vision of economic independence and self-reliance. The large area of native Darwin stringybark (Eucalyptus tetrodonta) forest on traditional Wik land is a potential engine for economic development, which could provide meaningful employment, and contribute to other Wik socio-economic objectives, including facilitating population decentralisation and consolidation of cultural obligations to manage country through provision of on country employment, reducing welfare dependency and expenditure on timber purchases from outside CYP, and increasing income and skill levels in the community. A large proportion of the higher-quality timber resource on traditional Wik land is situated on bauxite mining leases and the current practice is to clear, windrow and burn this timber prior to commencement of mining. A Wik native forest timber industry could make use of this wasted high-quality timber resource. The objectives of this thesis were to: determine the property rights of Wik people to the timber resource on their traditional land; assess whether forestry operations in Darwin stringybark forests in the study area are likely to be financially viable; and generate a suite of optimal timber utilisation strategies for Wik people, subject to cultural, ecological and economic constraints. This required economic research in the areas of indigenous property rights, private and social costs and benefits of forestry, timber markets, and evaluation and application of economic analysis techniques for appraisal of forestry development opportunities. A social cost-benefit analysis of the privately optimal timber utilisation policies has also been performed to support the decision-making of government policy-makers. This research project was a demanding and complex undertaking, not least because the research was being performed in a unique and diverse indigenous cultural environment where there is a need to respect cultural and research ethics protocols, where formal participatory research methods are inappropriate and where gatekeepers are particularly zealous about ‘protecting’ Wik people from ‘outsiders’. In addition, the property rights of Wik people to timber resources had never previously been analysed methodically, timber inventory and timber market information was lacking for CYP, and there are difficulties in transferring parameter estimates from the industrial hardwood timber industry of Australia to culturally appropriate indigenous operations on CYP. A critical research step was to develop a rapport with Wik people and gain an insight into their forestry objectives, through a number of visits to Aurukun Shire and informal discussions with elders on country. The property rights of Wik people to timber resources have been assessed by reviewing Federal and State Government legislation, court rulings, regional development policies and the Queensland Code of Practice for Native Forest Timber Production on State-owned lands. A timber inventory was conducted over 580,000 ha of Darwin stringybark forest, individual-tree volume and taper models were developed, and a geographical information system was used in estimation of harvestable timber volume and its spatial distribution. To facilitate information transfer to Wik people, expertise was gained in the use of forest visualisation software to pictorially display timber inventory data. A review of literature and discussions with experts identified technically feasible timber processing opportunities for CYP timbers. An informal telephone and in-person survey of 46 businesses, local councils and government agencies in north and south Queensland and the Northern Territory provided market information about CYP timbers. Concepts of a culturally appropriate working week and culturally appropriate rate of production were developed to assist the estimation of cost structures for a Wik timber industry, based on cost estimates for non-indigenous Australian hardwood forestry enterprises that had been obtained from discussion with forestry experts and ‘grey literature’. Generation and evaluation of a suite of privately optimal timber utilisation strategies for Wik people has been supported by the development of a mixed-integer goal programming (GP) model using the GAMS software package. The social analysis of the privately optimal strategies has been performed by adjusting private net present values (NPV) estimated by the GP model with shadow prices and transfer payments. In particular, a carbon model has been developed to estimate the value of carbon emitted by the Wik timber industry. The GP model analysis suggests that a Wik timber industry can generate a positive financial NPV if seed funding of at least $0.5 M is available. In general, privately optimal forestry strategies for Wik people generated by the GP model utilise relatively low-technology equipment, including portable sawmills and air-drying sheds, and produce undressed timber products such as structural timber. This contrasts strongly with Wik visions of an industry selling mostly unprocessed logs or woodchips and non-indigenous representatives of Wik people favouring the manufacture of high-value strip-flooring and furniture. The social analysis of privately optimal timber utilisation strategies reveals that social NPVs are much higher than financial NPVs, even when accounting for the costs of ecosystem services foregone by logging native forest. The establishment of a culturally appropriate Wik timber industry can be expected to generate net social benefits for Australia.