The mining of bituminous sandstone rock for the purpose of extracting bitumen has created a need for reclamation. One such mine is located in northern Logan County. Their mining operation involves removing large sections of sandstone, which is impregnated with bitumen, and crushing it to sand-sized material. The sand-sized material is then mixed with organic solvents which extract the bitumen. Once separated, the bitumen is stored for future refinement and the spent sand is stockpiled for later disposal. The spent sands or waste material are referred to as tar sand tailings. These tailings have particular properties which make reclamation efforts difficult. One restrictive property is the 30 percent swell factor, which prevents replacement of the tailings into their respective mined area. Another property is the tailings’ hydrophobicity. This water repellence prevents merely spreading the tailings onto the surface. Experiments were conducted at Western Kentucky University during 1984 and 1985 to determine methods to lessen the hydrophobic tendencies and allow for reclamation. These experiments included mixing the tailings with the existing soil and adding surfactants to the tailings. Water holding capacities, infiltration rates, and the ability to sustain plant life were determined and evaluated. It appears that the residual bitumen not removed by the extraction process causes the hydrophobic tendencies of the tailings. This conclusion was based on a comparison of pure tailings and tailings which were subjected to 500°C temperatures for 24 hours which could destroy all organic material, specifically the residual bitumen. The pure tar sand tailing held 0.44 percent moisture and the tailings with the organic material removed held 27.48 percent moisture. Mixtures of tailings and Zanesville soil were also evaluated and compared to the tailings with and without organic material. The percent moisture of the soil was not significantly different from the tailings without organic material. All mixtures were significantly lower than the soil or the tailings without organic material and significantly higher than the pure tar and tailings. However, the mixtures apparently can hold sufficient moisture for plant growth. Water infiltration rates through various mixtures of tailings and soil with and without surfactants were also evaluated. It was concluded that a tailings/soil mixture of 75/25 percent with and without surfactant and 90/10 percent mixture with surfactant allowed the fastest water infiltration. The rate of infiltration is important since the Logan County topography is favorable for runoff erosion. Rye (secale cereale) was grown in various mixtures of tailings and soil with and without surfactants to determine phytotoxic effects. Visual observations of the growing plants indicated no phytotoxic effects due to the bitumen or surfactants. However, dry matter yields of the plants differed significantly. The lower yield of some plants could be attributed to a lack of moisture since the lowest yields were in the pure tailings with and without surfactant. In conclusion, the results of this study revealed that tar sand tailings do have hydrophobic tendencies apparently due to residual bitumen. These tendencies can be buffered by mixing the waste material with an existing soil or by complete combustion of the residual organic material. Also it was concluded that vegetation could be established on the mixtures of tailings and soil and thus, the land reclaimed.

The South Florida Everglades is a unique ecosystem. Intensive water management in the system has facilitated agricultural, urban, and economic development. The Everglades offers a variety of ecosystem services (ES) to the people living in this region. Nevertheless, the ecosystem is under imminent threat of climate change, which would alter the way water is managed today and ultimately affect the ES offered by the system. On the other hand, substantial restoration is underway that aims to restore the Everglades closer to its historic condition. This research tried to map the public’s preference for Everglades restoration. Using a geocoded discrete-choice survey dataset, the study showed variation in the public’s preference by changing the levels of ES. Additionally, the general public’s attitude toward climate change risk to the Everglades and preference for mitigation were also assessed using the survey data.

The purpose of this research is to study the commercialization of Fairtrade and Organic coffee in the Bolivia. Fairtrade and Organic coffee are alternative trade systems designed to promote the equitable and environmentally sustainable production of coffee. However, these alternative trading systems often fail to meet these goals. The producers and environment these systems are intended to protect remain marginalized. These failures are due to a number of local institutions. In order to better understand these institutions, this research conducted interviews of various stakeholders including producers, cooperative leaders, organic/Fair Trade certifiers, government agencies and private buyers. All these stakeholders influence the success of the alternative trade systems. By better understanding how these stakeholders impact the commercialization of coffee in Bolivia; new policies can be develop to improve the outcomes of alternative trade, to benefit both producers and the environment. This is especially critical in Bolivia because of the environmentally sensitive area in which coffee is grown, the potentially damaging impact of coca on the region and, the devastating economic impact to farmers.

Can we design waste? This is a question I seek to answer through the research of design and systems. Waste is an ever evolving and growing issue in our world today. Buildings and the spaces we inhabit contribute to the vast destruction and increasing detriment to our natural world. There are many “remedies” in the construction industry that attempt to regulate building waste and inspire sustainability, but are merely ruses for a much deeper rooted problem than sustaining the way we live. Sustainability is not enough, it simply means we are doing less bad while still perpetuating the problem of waste. Design, architecture, and construction must go beyond this to eradicate the issue; producing “less” waste is not a solution, but a redefining of the essence in which we live is a mandate. This thesis seeks to explore the conundrum of waste through the lens of design. This thesis will study systems as a tool for waste remediation and regeneration. It will explore and scrutinize both building systems such as HVAC and energy efficiency as well as space making systems, scenario based, environmental, sociological, and economical systems, all which have an important and integral impact on design, our environment, and the human population. To answer the question, can we design waste, we must redefine our lives and the systems that propel us habitually in the ways we make, produce, work, eat, and live. Moving away from systems of simplicity to those of diversity and complexity. To do this we must re-examine new and existing systems from socioeconomic to the natural cycles of rain water and evaporation. We must re-define the way we live, on all levels, from how we live and what we use to what we actually need to survive happily and harmoniously with ourselves and our planet. The key – Design.

<p>This dissertation examines the impact of the expansion of renewable technology at both national and local level, through distinct essays. At the national level, the first paper analyzes the effects of economic and distributional impacts of climate mitigation policy, in the context of a developing country, to understand the interactions between the energy system and the macroeconomic environment. In the case of the local level, the second paper uses synthetic control method, to estimate the effect at the county level of utility scale wind in the development indicators for two counties in the U.S. </p> <p>The first paper assesses the economic and distributional impacts of Nicaragua’s commitments to limit future greenhouse gas emissions in the context of the Paris Agreement, known as the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). The analysis relies on two distinct models. The first is a top-down approach based on a single-country computable general equilibrium (CGE) model, known as the Mitigation, Adaptation and New Technologies Applied General Equilibrium (MANAGE) Model. The second is a bottom-up approach based on the Open-Source energy Modeling System (OSeMOSYS), which is technology rich energy model. The combined model is calibrated to an updated social accounting matrix for Nicaragua, which disaggregates households into 20 representative types: 10 rural and 10 urban households. For the household disaggregation we have used information from the 2014 Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) for Nicaragua. Our analysis focuses on the distributional impacts of meeting the NDCs as well as additional scenarios—in a dynamic framework as the MANAGE model is a (recursive) dynamic model. The results show that a carbon tax has greatest potential for reduction in emissions, with modest impact in macro variables. An expansion of the renewable sources in the electricity matrix also leads to significant reduction in emissions. Only a carbon tax achieves a reduction in emissions consistent with keeping global warming below 2°C. Nicaragua’s NDC alone would not achieve the target and mitigation instruments are needed. An expansion of generation from renewable sources, does not lead to a scenario consistent with a 2°C pathway. </p> <p>The second paper measures the impact of wind generation on county level outcomes through the use of the Synthetic Control Method (SCM). SCM avoids the pitfalls of other methods such as input-output models and project level case studies that do not provide county level estimates. We find that the local per capita income effect of utility wind scale is 6 percent (translate into an increase of $1,511 in per capita income for 2019) for Benton County and 8 percent for White county in Indiana (an increase of $2,100 in per capita income for 2019). The per capita income effect measures the average impact, which includes the gains in rents from capital, land, and labor from wind power in these counties. Moreover, we find that most of the rents from wind power accrue to the owners of capital and labor. Even assuming the lowest projections of electricity prices and the highest reasonable cost we still find a 10 percent minimum rate of return to capital for both Benton and White counties’ wind power generators. Furthermore, we find that there are excess rents that could be taxed and redistributed at the county, state, or federal level without disincentivizing investment in wind power.</p>

This thesis examines ways in which rural mountain women of Andean Peru and southern Appalachia use their lived histories and food knowledge in ways that counter Cartesian epistemologies regarding national and international food systems. Using women’s fiction and cookbooks, this thesis examines how voice and narrative reclaim women’s spaces within food landscapes. Further, this thesis examines women’s non-profits and grassroots organizations to illustrate the ways in which rural mountain women expand upon their lived histories in ways that contribute to tangible solutions to poverty and hunger in rural mountainous communities. The primary objective of this thesis is to recover rural mountain women’s voices in relation to food culture and examine how their food knowledge contributes to improving local food policy and reducing hunger in frontline communities.

It is recommended that the City of Guadalupe prepare and implement a small-scale business expansion and retention program using existing service providers in the area. This type of program model seems to hold the most potential for Guadalupe. A mixed-methods approach including in-depth cases studies of existing economic development programs and an analysis of opportunities and constraints in Guadalupe informs a set recommendations for future economic development in the City. Data was collected in three phases: short interviews with a variety of economic development program staff, short interviews with Guadalupe business owners and City officials and in-depth interviews with staff from five selected case-study programs.

Personalentwicklung ist mit erheblichem Aufwand für Humankapitalinvestitionen für Unternehmen verbunden, wobei die Aneignung des Investitionsobjektes selbst und auch der Erträge aus der Investition unsicher sind. Zunächst werden aus realgeschichtlichen Befunden betriebswirtschaftliche Begründungen für die Personalentwicklung abgeleitet, und ökonomisch interpretiert. Im Hauptteil wird die Personalentwicklung innerhalb des Rahmens eines dreigeteilten Arbeitsmarktes ökonomisch analysiert. Schlussendlich werden einige Prognosen zur künftigen Rolle der Personalentwicklung auf Basis der aktuellen Entwicklungen am Arbeitsmarkt erstellt.:INHALTSVERZEICHNIS 1. EINFÜHRUNG 8 1.1. PROBLEMSTELLUNG UND ZIEL DER ARBEIT 9 1.2. AUFBAU DER UNTERSUCHUNG 12 2. STATUS DER THEORETISCHEN BETRACHTUNGEN DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 14 2.1. BEGRIFFSKLÄRUNG UND PRÄZISIERUNG DES UNTERSUCHUNGSOBJEKTS 14 2.2. GRUNDLAGEN DER ÖKONOMISCHEN BZW. PERSONALÖKONOMISCHEN ANALYSE 18 2.3. THEORIEBILDUNG VON PERSONALWIRTSCHAFT UND PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 23 2.4. INTERDISZIPLINARITÄT DER WISSENSCHAFTLICHEN BETRACHTUNG DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 26 2.5. WÜRDIGUNG UND FOLGERUNGEN FÜR DEN WEITEREN VERLAUF DER ARBEIT 31 3. REALBETRACHTUNG DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG FÜR DEUTSCHLAND 35 3.1. REALGESCHICHTE DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG IN DEUTSCHLAND 36 3.1.1. Die Phase vor der Industriellen Revolution: Handwerk und Manufakturen 37 3.1.2. Die Phase der industriellen Revolution bis zur Wirtschaftskrise 1873 41 3.1.3. Die Zeit von 1873 bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs 47 3.1.4. Die Entwicklung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg und das Aufkommen des Begriffs ´Personalentwicklung´ 56 3.1.5. Die Entwicklung im Dienstleistungssektor (Beispiel Deutsche Bank) 60 3.1.6. Zusammenfassung und betriebswirtschaftliche Begründung der Personalentwicklung aus realgeschichtlicher Perspektive 61 3.2. DER SEGMENTIERTE ARBEITSMARKT ALS RAHMEN DER ÖKONOMISCHEN ANALYSE DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 66 3.2.1. Ausgewählte deskriptive Ansätze der Arbeitsmarktsegmentierung 67 3.2.1.1. Der institutionalistische Ansatz von Piore (1972) und Doeringer/Piore (1985) 68 3.2.1.2. Segmentierung als rationale Entscheidung des Arbeitgebers 70 3.2.1.3. Betriebszentrierte Arbeitsmarktsegmentation im theoretisch historischen Ansatz von LUTZ 72 3.2.1.4. Der dreigeteilte Arbeitsmarkt im betriebszentrierten Ansatz von SENGENBERGER 74 3.2.2. Kosten bzw. Nachteile des internen Arbeitsmarktes 77 3.2.3. Kritische Würdigung der Ansätze 79 3.2.4. Implikationen für die Begründung und Gestaltung der Personalentwicklung 82 4. ÖKONOMISCH-THEORETISCHE ANALYSE DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 87 4.1. BESCHREIBUNG DER VERWENDETEN THEORIEN 88 4.1.1. Grundlagen der Humankapitaltheorie 88 4.1.1.1 Grundlegende Aussagen der Humankapitaltheorie 89 4.1.1.2 Kritik und relevante Ansätze zur Weiterentwicklung der Humankapitaltheorie 97 4.1.1.3 Transferkosten des Humankapitals und Arbeitsmarktsituation als alternative Analysekriterien 104 4.1.2. Die Transaktionskostentheorie als Instrument zur Analyse von Make-Or-Buy-Entscheidungen 108 4.1.2.1 Transaktionseigenschaften und Verhaltensannahmen 113 4.1.2.2 Vertragsschemata und Formen der Arbeitsorganisation 119 4.1.3. Implizite Kontrakte als Voraussetzung und Konsequenz der Personalentwicklung 126 4.1.3.1 Notwendigkeit und Wirkungsweise von impliziten Verträgen 128 4.1.3.2 Mechanismen zur Durchsetzung impliziter Vereinbarungen 133 4.2. ÖKONOMISCH-THEORETISCHE BETRACHTUNG DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 138 4.2.1. Humankapital als Objekt der Personalentwicklung 138 4.2.1.1 Die Vermittlung von allgemeinem und transferierbarem Humankapital im Rahmen der Personalentwicklung 139 4.2.1.2 Berufsfachliches Humankapital als ergänzende Humankapitalkategorie für den Deutschen Arbeitsmarkt 145 4.2.1.3 Die Rolle der Personalentwicklung für die Bildung und Bindung von spezifischem Humankapital 156 4.2.2. Betrachtung der Make-or-Buy-Entscheidung bezüglich des Humankapitals aus Sicht der Transaktionskostentheorie 159 4.2.3. Schaffung von Anreizen durch Implizite Verträge 168 4.3. PERSONALENTWICKLUNG IM SEGMENTIERTEN ARBEITSMARKT AUS ÖKONOMISCH-THEORETISCHER PERSPEKTIVE 169 4.3.1. Grundlegende Aussagen und Fragestellungen 169 4.3.2. Rudimentäre Personalentwicklung im allgemeinen Segment 172 4.3.3. Qualifizierungsmaßnahmen und Karrierepfade im berufsfachlichen Segment 178 4.3.4. Ausgeprägte Personalentwicklung im betriebsspezifischen Segment 190 4.4. ZUR ÖKONOMISCHEN RATIONALITÄT DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 208 4.4.1. Beschaffungs- und Allokationsfunktion der Personalentwicklung 208 4.4.1.1 Informationsasymmetrien am externen Arbeitsmarkt als Begründung für Personalentwicklung 209 4.4.1.2 Humankapitalknappheiten am externen Arbeitsmarkt als Begründung für die Notwendigkeit der Personalentwicklung 211 4.4.1.3 Personalentwicklung als Mittel zur Erreichung eines optimalen Matches und einer optimalen Allokation des Humankapitals 213 4.4.2. Personalentwicklung als Anreizinstrument 215 4.4.2.1 Leistungsanreize durch Personalentwicklung 216 4.4.2.2 Anreize zum Erwerb von spezifischem Humankapital 219 4.4.2.3 Mitarbeiterbindung durch Personalentwicklung 221 4.4.3. Personalentwicklung als Ergänzung für finanzielle Anreize oder rechtliche Regelungen 225 4.5. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG DER ÖKONOMISCH-THEORETISCHEN ANALYSE DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 226 5. AKTUELLE ENTWICKLUNGEN AM ARBEITSMARKT UND DEREN IMPLIKATIONEN FÜR DIE PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 240 5.1. SCHILDERUNG DER VERÄNDERUNGEN AM ARBEITSMARKT 240 5.1.1. Die Beeinflussung des Arbeitskräfteangebots durch die demografische Entwicklung 241 5.1.2. Technologische und organisatorische Veränderungen und deren Auswirkung auf die nachgefragte Qualifikationsstruktur 242 5.1.3. Auswirkungen der Globalisierung auf Angebot und Nachfrage am Arbeitsmarkt 246 5.1.4. Abkehr vom Normalarbeitsverhältnis durch den Einsatz von marktnahen Beschäftigungsformen 248 5.2. AUSWIRKUNGEN DER VERÄNDERUNGEN AUF DEN SEGMENTIERTEN ARBEITSMARKT UND DEREN THEORETISCHE INTERPRETATION 251 5.2.1. Auswirkungen der Veränderungen auf den segmentierten Arbeitsmarkt 251 5.2.2. Veränderungen des humankapitaltheoretischen Kalküls aufgrund künftiger Entwicklungen 259 5.2.3. Änderungen in der Make-or-Buy-Kalkulation 267 5.2.4. Neue Bedeutung impliziter Verträge 273 5.3. RESULTIERENDE VERÄNDERUNGEN FÜR DIE PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 277 5.3.1. Beeinflussung der Personalentwicklung durch marktnahe Beschäftigungsverhältnisse 277 5.3.2. Veränderungen im Ziel- und Aufgabensystem der Personalentwicklung 278 5.3.3. Veränderungen bei Teilsystemen und Maßnahmen der Personalentwicklung 281 5.3.3.1 Veränderungen bei den Qualifizierungsmaßnahmen 281 5.3.3.2 Veränderungen bei der Karriere- und Laufbahnplanung 285 6. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG UND SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN 291 6.1. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG DER REALEN UND THEORETISCHEN ERGEBNISSE 291 6.2. VERHALTENSÖKONOMIK ALS INTEGRIERENDER THEORIERAHMEN ZUR BETRACHTUNG DER PERSONALENTWICKLUNG 294 LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 299

Nigeria, like all other rice consuming nations, has experienced a surge in domestic demand for rice since 1970. However, local rice production has not been sufficient to meet local demand, leading to this demand continually being filled by imports. The Federal Government of Nigeria has initiated subsidies programs intended to improve Nigerian rice farmers' technical and cost efficiency levels. This quantitative study evaluated the impact of these policies on the technical and cost efficiency levels of paddy rice farm households in Nigeria. Farrell's (1957) efficiency theory and production theory served as the theoretical frameworks. Data were collected from a cross-section of 300 paddy rice farmers drawn from 3 states in Nigeria. The study used 2 estimation techniques: parametric technique (SF) and the non-parametric technique (DEA). The results showed that paddy rice production in Nigeria was still profitable but low and the estimated average technical and cost efficiency levels from the DEA approach were 0.721 and 0.295, respectively. Evidence suggests that the formulation and implementation of subsidy programs on farm inputs were relevant in the variations of technical and cost efficiency levels across the rice farm households. The study findings support the continuity of the subsidy policies to encourage increased rice production; they also suggest that governments should address the issues of post-harvest losses, degrading irrigation facilities, and ineffective rural development policies. The positive social change implications of this research include providing information to inform government policy changes designed to more effectively address rice importation and pricing, positively impacting the standard of living for rural farmers and communities in Nigeria.

Pseudoroegneria spicata and Elymus wawawaiensis are two native perennial bunchgrasses of North America's Intermountain West. Frequent drought, past overgrazing practices, subsequent weed invasions, and increased wildfire frequency have combined to severely degrade natural landscapes in the region, leading to a decline in the abundance of native vegetation. Being formerly widespread throughout the region, P. spicata is a favorite for restoration purposes in the Intermountain West. Elymus wawawaiensis, which occupies a more restricted distribution in the Intermountain West, is often used as a restoration surrogate for P. spicata. However, since most restoration sites are outside the native range of E. wawawaiensis and as the use of native plant material may be more desirable than a surrogate, the use of E. wawawaiensis as a restoration plant material has been somewhat controversial. The main goal of my research was to identify plant materials of these species with superior seedling growth, drought tolerance, and defoliation tolerance, traits that may contribute to enhanced ecological function in restored rangeland plant communities. I conducted a growth-chamber study to evaluate morphological and growth-related traits of germinating seedlings of these two species. My study suggested that, while the two bunchgrasses are similar in many ways, they display fundamentally different strategies at the very-young seedling stage. While P. spicata exhibited greater shoot and root biomass to enhance establishment, E. wawawaiensis displayed high specific leaf area (SLA) and specific root length (SRL), two traits commonly associated with faster growth. According to the eco-physiology literature, plants with greater stress tolerance display lesser growth potential. However, my greenhouse study showed that E. wawawaiensis was relatively more drought tolerant than P. spicata, despite higher expression of growth-related traits, e.g., SLA and SRL. While the two species displayed similar water use efficiency when water was abundant, E. wawawaiensis was also more efficient in its water use when drought stress was imposed. In a field study, I found E. wawawaiensis to be twice as defoliation tolerant as P. spicata. This study showed that P. spicata is typically more productive in the absence of defoliation, but E. wawawaiensis was more productive after defoliation due to its superior ability to recover and hence is a better candidate for rangelands that will be grazed. Hence, my study showed that E. wawawaiensis, despite being regarded as a surrogate for P. spicata, exhibits superior seedling establishment, drought tolerance, and defoliation tolerance. Therefore, E. wawawaiensis has advantages as a restoration species for the Intermountain West.