Respirable coal mine dust (RCMD) is one of the biggest occupational health hazards. Dusty mining environments can cause life-threatening respiratory health problems for coal miners known as black lung. Over the last 20 years, the flooded bed dust scrubber (FBS) has been employed as an integral component of dust control strategies for underground continuous mining operations. These units have been shown to be effective and robust in mining environments; however, several technical challenges and knowledge gaps limit their performance and efficiency. Despite the capability of the FBS, there are numerous technical challenges that limit its performance and efficiency. In particular, the static panel filter, instrumental in most scrubber designs, is fundamentally limited in collection efficiency and causes numerous operational challenges including rapid clogging. Furthermore, the current design of the filter panel is not capable of evenly wetting the entire surface area. This allows dust-laden air to pass through the filter media and decreases the cleaning capability of the FBS. In this research, both a lab-scale and a full-scale vibration-enhanced FBS with a liquid-coated filter panel were designed, manufactured, and tested. The results confirmed that a vibration-induced filter panel enhances dust collection performance and reduces mesh clogging. In addition, laboratory-scale mesh clogging tests showed that a hydrophilic mesh provided superior clogging mitigation and better performance. Typical results from bench-scale tests showed notable improvements in dust collection efficiencies by over 6% in wet condition and over 7% in dry condition while reducing mass accumulation in the filter by almost 10% in wet condition and over 40% in dry condition. The prototype testing was less conclusive, with deviations between the static mesh and vibrating mesh depending on the mesh density and operating conditions. Nevertheless, with the highest mesh density tested (30-layer), the vibrating mesh notably outperformed the static mesh with superior collection efficiency and reduced airflow loss. The system was further analyzed to investigate the size-by-size recovery of dust particles to various endpoints in the scrubber, under both vibrating and static conditions. Results show that while a majority of the particles are recovered into the demister sump, nearly a quarter of the dust mass is recovered upstream of the screen. In addition, the data confirm that vibration prompts notable improvements to collection efficiency, particularly in the finest size class (- 2.5 micron). / Doctor of Philosophy / Coal mine dust is an unintended and unavoidable consequence of coal extraction operations that poses significant health and safety risks. The inhalation of small, respirable dust particles can cause incurable lung diseases, including silicosis and coal workers' pneumoconiosis known as black lung. To minimize occupational hazards of underground coal mine dust, the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) periodically brings legislation to the industry. The recent respirable dust rule mandates reducing the maximum allowable respirable dust concentrations in the mine environment to below 1.5 mg/m3 at the working face and below 0.5 mg/m3 at intake entries. In order to comply with these regulations, modern mining techniques utilize several dust mitigation strategies, and the flooded-bed dust scrubber (FBS) is one such technology used extensively on continuous miners. The conventional static panel filter, instrumental in most scrubber designs, however, is fundamentally limited in collection efficiencies due to a high clogging rate and a tradeoff between mesh density and airflow rate. Moreover, poorly wetted areas allow dust-laden air to pass through the filter media. To overcome these deficiencies, a novel liquid-coated vibrating mesh panel is introduced in this research. A laboratory-scale dust scrubber unit and a full-scale unit with a vibration-enhanced mesh screen panel were manufactured and employed to investigate the efficacy of the concept as compared to that of a static mesh. A series of experimental design studies were employed to determine the effective vibrational parameters, scrubber operational parameters, and the impact of mesh variations on dust collection and clogging mitigation. Optimized results from this research were also evaluated against those of a static mesh to determine performance improvement while investigating the mechanisms controlling dust collection and particle department through the scrubber system. Results from the laboratory study show that vibrating mesh conditions, higher water flow rates, and a hydrophilic mesh screen panel led to an improvement in the cleaning efficiency of the scrubber system. Compared to a static-mesh to FBS, the vibrating-mesh FBS showed a significant reduction in pressure drop across the mesh screen indicating lower air loss through the test duration. Overall, the findings confirm that vibrating mesh conditions have the ability to improve filter clogging issues while maintaining high collection efficiencies which can lead to better and healthier working conditions and prolonged operational time with less frequent maintenance. This research supports further technological advancement in mine dust mitigation technologies.

Los suelos de la Región Semiárida Central Argentina (RSCA) son una fuente importante de emisión de PM10 a la atmósfera, las cuales se relacionan con efectos adversos en la salud humana y diversos efectos en el ambiente. Los procesos que generan la emisión de PM10 del suelo incluyen la erosión eólica, las actividades de labranzas y el tránsito por caminos sin pavimentar. La capacidad de emisión de material particulado emitido por diferentes fuentes, así como la composición química del mismo son dos aspectos que interesan conocer. En las últimas décadas el uso de herbicidas, principalmente el glifosato [C3H8NO5P], ha aumentado drásticamente en los suelos agrícolas de Argentina. De igual manera ocurrió con el consumo de fertilizantes, los cuales puede aportar diferentes contenidos de metales traza al suelo. El glifosato y su principal metabolito, el AMPA [CH6NO3P], tienden a adsorberse en la capa superior del suelo expuesta a la erosión. Los caminos sin pavimentar a pesar de no recibir aplicaciones en forma directa pueden estar expuestos a estos agroquímicos por diferentes procesos como la deriva, el agua de lluvia o la deposición de material transportado por el viento. La capacidad de emisión de los suelos de la RSCA bajo distintos manejos y la composición química del PM10 emitido son aspectos poco conocidos. Es por esto que el objetivo de esta tesis fue evaluar la emisión y caracterizar químicamente el material respirable emitido por suelos de la RSCA. Para ello se determinó la emisión potencial de PM10 (eficiencia de emisión, EE) de suelos agrícolas de diferentes texturas con dos metodologías: 1) utilizando el suelo tamizado por 2 mm (EE PM10), 2) utilizando las emisiones potenciales de las fracciones de agregados (EEfa) y su proporción en el suelo (EE2 PM10). Para caracterizar químicamente el PM10, se midió la concentración de glifosato y AMPA en el PM10 emitido por suelos bajo diferentes manejos (agrícola, agrícola - ganadero y ganadero) y el contenido de Cu, Ni, Mn, Fe (total y disponible), glifosato y AMPA en suelos agrícolas y caminos rurales sin pavimentar aledaños. En los suelos agrícolas se aplicaron herbicidas frecuentemente (al menos tres aplicaciones al año) y fertilizantes, en suelos agrícolas - ganaderos el uso de herbicidas fue menos frecuente (menos de una aplicación al año) y en suelos ganaderos no se aplicaron agroquímicos al menos en los últimos 20 años. Los resultados mostraron que la eficiencia de emisión de PM10 calculada con ambas metodologías se correlacionaron positivamente, aunque la EE PM10 fue el doble de la EE2 PM10. La EE PM10 aumentó con el contenido de arena y limo y disminuyó con el aumento en el contenido de arcilla y MO del suelo. La EEfa disminuyó con el aumento en el tamaño de la fracción de agregados, siendo la fracción <0,42 mm la de mayor EE y la fracción >19,2 mm la de menor EE. Este análisis mostró que la fracción <0,42 mm representa más del 80 % de la EE2 PM10 del suelo. Los análisis químicos mostraron que los porcentajes de detección y concentración de glifosato y AMPA fueron en suelos agrícolas> suelos agrícolas - ganaderos> suelos ganaderos. La detección de glifosato y AMPA en los suelos ganaderos sugiere que estos compuestos ingresaron desde otras áreas por distintos mecanismos como la deriva, a través del agua de lluvia o por la deposición de sedimentos transportados por el viento. Las concentraciones de glifosato y AMPA encontradas en el PM10 fueron mayores a las encontradas en el suelo. Esto indica que ambos compuestos se acumulan en el material respirable emitido por suelos, lo cual pone de manifiesto el potencial riesgo para la salud y el ambiente. En todos los manejos analizados y caminos rurales el contenido de AMPA en el suelo y en el PM10 fue mayor que el contenido de glifosato. El análisis de las emisiones actuales de PM10 mostró que la cantidad de glifosato transportado en el PM10 movilizado por la erosión eólica de una hectárea de camino rural sin pavimentar fue entre 497 y 956 veces mayor que en suelos agrícolas. Mientras que, la cantidad de AMPA transportado en el PM10 emitido por caminos rurales fue entre 27 y 381 veces mayor que la emitida por suelos agrícolas. Las concentraciones de Cu, Ni, Mn, Fe y Fe disponible fueron mayores en el PM10 que en el suelo. Los contenidos de los elementos analizados en el PM10 emitido por caminos rurales fueron mayores o similares a los presentes en el PM10 emitido por los suelos agrícolas. Los resultados de esta tesis ponen de manifiesto la importancia de los caminos rurales como fuente de emisión de PM10 y transporte de sustancia contaminantes a la atmósfera y otros destinos. Los suelos productivos bajo distintos manejos son una fuente menor de emisión por unidad de superficie respecto de los caminos. Las condiciones de manejo actuales de los suelos productivos mantienen a los mismos con alta cobertura evitando la erosión eólica y la emisión de PM10. Sin embargo, estos suelos tienen un alto potencial de emitir PM10 y así transportar sustancias contaminantes. Este resultado advierte sobre las posibles consecuencias en el caso de que ocurran cambios en el uso de la tierra hacia sistemas de manejo donde el suelo presente menor cobertura vegetal. / The soils of Central Semiarid Región of Argentina (CSRA) are an important source of PM10 emissions into the atmosphere, which are related to adverse effects on human health and various effects on the environment. The processes that generate the emission of PM10 from the soil include wind erosion, tillage activities and traffic on unpaved roads. The emission capacity of particulate material emitted by different sources, as well as its chemical composition are two aspects that are interesting to know. In the last decades the use of herbicides, mainly glyphosate [C3H8NO5P], has increased dramatically in the agricultural soils of Argentina. In the same way it happened with the consumption of fertilizers, which can contribute different contents of trace metals to the soil. Glyphosate and its main metabolite, AMPA [CH6NO3P], tends to be adsorbed in the upper layer of soil exposed to erosion. Unpaved roads, despite not receiving direct applications, can be exposed to these agrochemicals by different processes such as drift, rainwater or the deposition of material carried by the wind. The emission capacity of the soils of the CSRA under different management and the chemical composition of the PM10 emitted are little known aspects. This is why the objective of this thesis was to evaluate the emission and chemically characterize the respirable material emitted by the CSRA soils. For this, the potential emission of PM10 from agricultural soils of different textures was determined using two methodologies: from the soil sieved by 2 mm (EE PM10) and from the potential emissions of the aggregate fractions (EEfa) by their proportion in the soil (EE2 PM10). To chemically characterize the PM10, the concentration of glyphosate and AMPA in the PM10 emitted by soils under different management (agricultural, agricultural - livestock and livestock) and the content of Cu, Ni, Mn, Fe (total and available), glyphosate and AMPA on agricultural soils and surrounding unpaved rural roads were measured. In agricultural soils, herbicides were frequently applied (at least three applications per year) and fertilizers, in agricultural soils - livestock the use of herbicides was less frequent (less than one application per year) and in livestock soils, agrochemicals were not applied at least in the last 20 years. The results showed that the PM10 emission efficiency calculated with both methodologies were positively correlated, although the PM10 EE was double that of the PM10 EE2. The EE PM10 increased with the content of sand and silt and decreased with the increase in the content of clay and OM of the soil. The EEfa decreased with the increase in the size of the aggregate fraction, being the fraction <0,42 mm the one with the highest EE and the fraction >19,2 mm the one with the lowest EE. This analysis showed that the fraction <0,42 mm represents more than 80 % to EE2 PM10 from the soil. The chemical analyzes showed that the percentages of detection and concentration of glyphosate and AMPA were in agricultural soils> agricultural soils - livestock> livestock soils. The detection of glyphosate and AMPA in livestock soils suggests that these compounds entered from other areas by different mechanisms such as drift, through rainwater or by the deposition of sediments carried by the wind. Glyphosate and AMPA concentrations found in PM10 were higher than those found in soil. This indicates that both compounds accumulate in the respirable dust emitted by soils, showing the potential risk to health and the environment. In all the management analysed and rural roads, the AMPA content in the soil and in PM10 was higher than the glyphosate content. Analysis of actual PM10 emissions showed that the amount of glyphosate transported in PM10 mobilized by wind erosion of one hectare of unpaved rural road was between 497 and 956 times higher than in agricultural soils. While, the amount of AMPA transported in PM10 emitted by rural roads was between 27 and 381 times greater than that emitted by agricultural soils. The concentrations of Cu, Ni, Mn, Fe and available Fe were higher in PM10 than in soil. The contents of the elements analyzed in the PM10 emitted by rural roads were higher or similar to those present in the PM10 emitted by agricultural soils. The results of this thesis showed the importance of rural roads as a source of PM10 emission and transport of polluting substances to the atmosphere and other destinations. Productive soils under different management are a minor source of emissions per unit area compared to roads. The actual management conditions of productive soils maintain them with high coverage, avoiding wind erosion and the emission of PM10. However, these soils have a high potential to emit PM10 and thus transport pollutants. This result warns of the possible consequences in the event that changes in land use occur towards management systems where the soil has less coverage.

The purpose of this thesis is to examine applications of thermal and laser-based methods to monitor airborne particulates in underground coal mines. Specifically, coal and mixed mineral mine dust, as well as, diesel particulate matter (DPM). These particulates have historically, and continue to have, significant health impacts on underground miners. Chapters 1 and 2 of this thesis concentrate on using a novel method of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) to characterize respirable coal and mixed mineral mine dust and presents the results of this method being applied to samples collected in Appalachia coal mines. Appalachia has been a geographic "hotspot" for the rise in occupational lung disease amongst underground coal miners, which began in 1990's after decades of steady decline. This has led researchers to propose there could be something unique about the respirable dust composition in Appalachia coal mines, which resulted in the surge of lung disease cases; however, the knowledge base regarding the actual composition of respirable coal mine dust is limited. The results of this thesis show that most of the mass fraction of respirable Appalachia coal mine dust is not coal, but rather carbonates and non-carbonate minerals (i.e. silica and silicates). These findings are significant as many researchers now suspect silica and silicates to be the true culprit in the occupational lung disease of coal miners. DPM presents an additional occupational health hazard to underground coal miners where diesel equipment is used and is difficult to monitor due to its complex nature. In underground metal/non-metal mines, airborne DPM is regulated and monitored using carbon surrogates. However, due to the potential interference from coal-sourced carbon, DPM in coal mines is monitored only by taking samples at the tailpipe of each piece of equipment. This thesis aims to investigate the potential for a laser-based instrument, the FLIR Airtec, to be used in underground coal mines. In particular, what effect the coal dust will have on the instrument, as it measures DPM by way of elemental carbon (EC). The results of this study show that while the Airtec will not over-estimate coal-sourced EC, there could be some sampling artifacts associated with its operation in coal mines, which may inhibit its effectiveness. / Master of Science

The purpose of this thesis is to examine the potential of a novel method for analysis and characterization of coal mine dust. Respirable dust has long been an industry concern due to the association of overexposure leading to the development occupational lung disease. Recent trends of increased incidence of occupational lung disease in miners, such as silicosis and Coal Workers Pneumoconiosis, has shown there is a need for a greater understanding of the respirable fraction of dust in underground coal mines. This study will examine the development of a comprehensive standard methodology for characterization of respirable dust via thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). This method was verified with laboratory-generated respirable dust samples analogous to those commonly observed in underground coal mines. Results of this study demonstrate the ability of the novel TGA method to characterize dust efficiently and effectively. Analysis of the dust includes the determination of mass fractions of coal and non-coal, as well as mass fractions of coal, carbonate, and non-carbonate minerals for larger respirable dust samples. Characterization occurs through the removal of dust particulates from the filter and analysis with TGA, which continuously measures change in mass with specific temperature regions associated with chemical changes for specific types of dust particulates. Results obtained from the verification samples reveal that this method can provide powerful information that may help to increase the current understanding of the health risks linked with exposure to certain types of dust, specifically those found in underground coal mines. / Master of Science

It has long been known that chronic exposures to high concentrations of respirable coal mine dust can lead to the development of lung diseases such as Coal Worker's Pneumoconiosis, commonly referred to as "black lung", and silicosis. Since the mid-1990s, an alarming resurgence of diseases has been documented in central Appalachia, where underground mining often necessitates significant extraction of rock strata along with the thin seams of coal. These circumstances have prompted concern over if or how changing dust composition might be a factor in contemporary disease prevalence. Until now, the total mass concentration and quartz mass fraction of respirable dust have been regulated and monitored in US coal mines. Unfortunately, however, these two metrics alone do not paint a full picture of dust composition. Earlier work in the author's research group established a preliminary thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) method for coal mine dust. The method is intended to allow estimation of three key mass fractions of the dust from separate sources: coal from the coal strata being mined; non-carbonate minerals from the rock strata being mined or drilled; and carbonates that are primarly sourced from application of rock dust products to the mine floor or ribs. However, accuracy of the preliminary method was substantially limited by poor dust recovery from the fibrous filter media used for sample collection. This thesis includes two studies: The first study aims to establish an improved TGA method. It uses smooth polycarbonate (PC) filters for dust sampling and a modified thermal ramping routine. The method is verified using laboratory-generated respirable dust samples. In the second study, the improved TGA method is used to analyze 75 respirable mine dust samples, collected in 15 US mines. Replicate samples are also analyzed by scanning electron microscopy using energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX). TGA and SEM-EDX results are compared to gain insights regarding the analytical methods and general trends in dust composition within and between mines. / Master of Science / It has long been known that chronic exposures to excessive respirable coal mine dust can lead to the development of lung diseases such as Coal Worker’s Pneumoconiosis (“Black Lung”) and silicosis. Disease rates in central Appalachia have shown an alarming and unexpected increase since the mid-1990s, despite declining dust concentrations evident from regulatory compliance monitoring data. Clearly, there is a need to better understand coal mine dust composition, which will require additional analytical methods. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) has been proposed as one possible method, because it should allow estimation of three key dust components from separate sources: coal from the coal strata being mined; non-carbonate minerals from the rock strata being mined or drilled; and carbonates from application of rock dust products to the mine floor and ribs. However, preliminary work with TGA showed limited accuracy, mostly due to sampling materials. In this thesis, two studies were performed. The first study aims to establish an improved TGA method using smooth, polycarbonate (PC) filters. The second study demonstrates the method on a large number of mine dust samples, and compares the results to those gained by an alternative method that uses electron microscopy.

The purpose of this thesis is to examine the potential for a more comprehensive method of analysis of coal mine dust. Respirable dust is specifically of interest due to its ability to cause occupational lung disease when miners are overexposed to airborne concentrations. A detailed standard methodology to characterize respirable mine dust is carefully investigated with the use of scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive x-ray (SEM-EDX). In addition to a thorough description of the developed particle level characterization approach, the method is demonstrated with underground respirable dust samples collected from an underground coal mine in Central Appalachia. Results of this thesis indicate that a comprehensive dust characterization method is possible and can be efficient and effective, when standardized. This analytical approach uses measured compositions, dimensions, and shapes to produce an abundance of data in even a single sample of dust. Verification results show the method is suitable for analysis of respirable particles of common coal mine mineralogy and analysis of many samples in a timely manner. The results obtained from the underground samples in Central Appalachia reveal the quantity of information which can be generated using the developed method. The amount of data which is acquired using the more comprehensive dust characterization method may aid in understanding the health effects of various dust characteristics. / Master of Science

Over the course of our lives we are exposed to airborne particulate matter in the workplace, home, and environment that results in the deposition of millions of particles in the lung. These exposures may result in disease if they are significant enough. The potential for harmful exposure depends in part on the dust's biodurability and the bioavailability of harmful constituents derived from the particles. A mixed flow reactor was used to evaluate two applications of geochemical methods to characterize the behavior of inhaled particles in the body. Dissolution rates of a well-characterized sample of powdered talc were measured in solvents that mimic fluids found in the human lung. These studies showed that variation of solvent chemistry, including the addition of organic chelators and proteins at intercellular fluid concentrations, does not markedly affect the measured dissolution rate of talc at 37 degrees Celcius and the data further indicate that the dissolution mechanism for talc in aqueous solutions is independent of pH over a range of pH from 2 to 8. The dissolution rate, determined by measuring the silicon release rate per unit surface area of talc is 1.4 (+/- 1.0) x 10-11 mol Si/(m2 -sec). A geometric shrinking particle model using this dissolution rate predicts an estimated lifetime (upper limit) of approximately 8 years for a 1 micron talc particle under pulmonary conditions. Talc dissolves considerably faster than quartz, but slower than chrysotile and olivine in the body. These data can be used to place constraints on the role of particle dissolution in the disease models associated with airborne respirable particulate matter. Secondly, the bioavailability of As and Cr was determined from a sample of coal fly ash from an eastern U.S. power plant. The time-release profiles of As and Cr were determined for these materials in physiologically-based solvents and incorporated into a toxicokinetic model to predict the exposure potential to As and Cr from occupational exposures to the coal fly ash. Predicted occupational exposure contributions from the ash relative to total environmental exposures were insignificant. The exposure predicted from the geochemical approach was compared with results observed in a cohort occupationally exposed to coal fly ash and found to be within one order of magnitude of the response of the occupational cohort. These results support the application of geochemical techniques to evaluate exposures to complex respirable materials. / Ph. D.

Inhalation of respirable dust in coal mines is a serious occupational health hazard which can lead to the development of chronic and irreversible lung diseases, such as Coal Worker's Pneumoconiosis (CWP) and Progressive Massive fibrosis (PMF). After the passage of the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act (CMHSA) in the late 1960's the prevalence of CWP among US coal miners decreased. However, since the late 1990's a resurgence of lung diseases has been reported, particularly in central Appalachia. On the other hand, dust monitoring data suggest that concentrations of respirable coal mine dust (RCMD) and crystalline silica have been on a downward trend. This contradiction has prompted keen interest in detailed characterization of RCMD to shed light on dust constituents-and their sources. Such information might help miners understand where and under what conditions specific sources contribute to RCMD, and how dust controls and monitoring could be enhanced to mitigate the exposure to respirable hazards. Respirable dust particles generated in coal mines are generally associated with three primary sources: the coal strata that is mined and generates mostly coal particles that could contribute for lung diseases, the rock strata that is cut along with the coal and generates most of the respirable silica and silicates, and the rock dust products that are the main source of carbonates which could produce respiratory irritations. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) is one of many analytical tools that might be used for dust characterization. Its primary benefit is that it can be used to apportion the total sample mass into three mass fractions (i.e., coal, carbonates, non-carbonates) which should be roughly associated with the primary dust sources (i.e., coal strata, rock dust products, rock strata) in many coal mines. This thesis consists of two main chapters: Chapter 1, outlines the research motivation, recaps the efforts to establish a standard TGA method for RCMD, and shows results of the validation experiments that were performed in the current work to enable application of the TGA method to a large set of RCMD and laboratory-generated dust samples. In Chapter 2, 46 lab-generated samples from primary dust source materials collected in 15 coal mines, and 129 respirable dust samples from 23 US coal mines are analyzed using the TGA method validated in Chapter 1. Results for both sets of samples are presented and the mine samples are interpreted based on sampling location, mining method and region. Additionally, Chapter 3 summarizes recommendations for future work. / Master of Science / The chronic exposure to dust generated in underground coal operations represents a serious health concern among coal miners that can lead to the development of lung diseases such as Coal Workers Pneumoconiosis (CWP or "black lung). Despite of dust compliance monitoring data that have shown that the concentrations of dust have been declining, since the late 1990's the number of US coal miners diagnosed with lung diseases has been increasing, especially in central Appalachia. This contradiction has prompted keen interest in detailed characterization of respirable coal mine dust (RCMD) to shed light on dust constituents-and their sources. Such information might help miners understand where and under what conditions specific sources contribute to RCMD, and how dust controls and monitoring could be enhanced to mitigate the exposure to respirable hazards. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) has been proposed as an alternative approach for dust characterization. Its primary benefit is that it can be used to apportion the total sample mass into three mass fractions (i.e., coal, carbonates, non-carbonates) which should be roughly associated with the primary dust sources (i.e., coal strata, rock dust products, rock strata) in many coal mines. This thesis consists of two main chapters: Chapter 1, outlines the research motivation, recaps the efforts to establish a standard TGA method for RCMD, and shows results of the validation experiments that were performed in the current work to enable application of the TGA method to a large set of RCMD and laboratory-generated dust samples. In Chapter 2, 46 lab-generated samples from primary dust source materials collected in 15 coal mines, and 129 respirable dust samples from 23 US coal mines are analyzed using the TGA method validated in Chapter 1. Results for both sets of samples are presented and the mine samples are interpreted based on sampling location, mining method and region. Additionally, Chapter 3 summarizes recommendations for future work.

Nickel is one of the most commonly known sensitisers and has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a possible carcinogen to humans (group 2B). Workers at a South African base metal refinery packaging area are potentially exposed to many hazardous chemicals that include nickel. Aims and Objectives: The aim and objectives of this study were to assess dermal and respiratory exposure of workers exposed to nickel in a packaging section at a South African base metal refinery and to assess the change in skin barrier function during a work shift by measuring percentage change in trans epidermal water loss (TEWL), skin hydration and skin surface pH. Skin health was established with a skin questionnaire. Surfaces that workers may come into contact with were also assessed. Method: Respiratory and dermal exposure assessment was done concurrently. Respiratory exposure was assessed and analysed by using the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) method 7300. The Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) inhalable aerosol sampler was used for personal air sampling. The TEWL index, skin hydration and skin surface pH of the index finger, palm, forearm and forehead were measured before and at the end of the shift with a Derma Measurement Unit, EDS 12 and Skin-pH-Meter® pH 905. These measurements were reported as percentage change in skin barrier function during the shift. Dermal exposure samples were collected with Ghostwipes™ from the index finger and palm of the dominant hand before, during and at the end of the shift, while samples from the forearm and forehead were only collected before and after the shift. Surface sampling was collected and all wipes were analysed for nickel according the NIOSH method 9102, using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. Results: Respiratory exposure for the whole group of workers in a packaging section was well below the eight hour Time Weighted Average (TWA) respiratory Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) of 0.5 mg m-3 for nickel. Dermal nickel loading was detected for all the job categories on all the anatomical areas even before the shift had commenced. During the shift more nickel was detected on the index finger and palm of the hand. Levels on the forearm and forehead were much lower in comparison with the index finger and the palm of the hand. Workplace surfaces, which workers may come into contact with on a daily basis, were also contaminated with nickel. Forklift drivers showed high exposure on the index finger and palm of their hands, and this can be attributed to them not wearing any gloves for hand protection. An increase in percentage change for TEWL was seen for most of the job categories on all anatomical areas measured during the shift. Percentage change in skin surface pH and skin hydration varied among job categories. Conclusion: The research addressed the problem statement, with the stated objectives. It was hypothesised that workers at a packaging section of a base metal refinery are exposed to quantifiable levels of nickel through the dermal exposure route. The hypothesis was accepted and control measures together with future studies were recommended. The results confirmed that all workers at a base metal refinery are exposed to quantifiable levels of nickel through the dermal exposure route. Dermal exposure was evident on all anatomical areas for all job categories before the shift had commenced. Personal protective equipment was provided to all employees, but forklift drivers did not wear gloves when operating the forklift. Respirable exposure to nickel was below the OEL. Changes in TEWL and to a lesser extent skin hydration, suggest a deterioration in skin barrier function during the shift. Forklift drivers as well as plate washers may be the highest risk job categories in developing allergic contact dermatitis. Several measures to lower respiratory and dermal exposure to nickel are also recommended. / MSc (Occupational Hygiene), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Nickel is one of the most commonly known sensitisers and has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a possible carcinogen to humans (group 2B). Workers at a South African base metal refinery packaging area are potentially exposed to many hazardous chemicals that include nickel. Aims and Objectives: The aim and objectives of this study were to assess dermal and respiratory exposure of workers exposed to nickel in a packaging section at a South African base metal refinery and to assess the change in skin barrier function during a work shift by measuring percentage change in trans epidermal water loss (TEWL), skin hydration and skin surface pH. Skin health was established with a skin questionnaire. Surfaces that workers may come into contact with were also assessed. Method: Respiratory and dermal exposure assessment was done concurrently. Respiratory exposure was assessed and analysed by using the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) method 7300. The Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) inhalable aerosol sampler was used for personal air sampling. The TEWL index, skin hydration and skin surface pH of the index finger, palm, forearm and forehead were measured before and at the end of the shift with a Derma Measurement Unit, EDS 12 and Skin-pH-Meter® pH 905. These measurements were reported as percentage change in skin barrier function during the shift. Dermal exposure samples were collected with Ghostwipes™ from the index finger and palm of the dominant hand before, during and at the end of the shift, while samples from the forearm and forehead were only collected before and after the shift. Surface sampling was collected and all wipes were analysed for nickel according the NIOSH method 9102, using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. Results: Respiratory exposure for the whole group of workers in a packaging section was well below the eight hour Time Weighted Average (TWA) respiratory Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) of 0.5 mg m-3 for nickel. Dermal nickel loading was detected for all the job categories on all the anatomical areas even before the shift had commenced. During the shift more nickel was detected on the index finger and palm of the hand. Levels on the forearm and forehead were much lower in comparison with the index finger and the palm of the hand. Workplace surfaces, which workers may come into contact with on a daily basis, were also contaminated with nickel. Forklift drivers showed high exposure on the index finger and palm of their hands, and this can be attributed to them not wearing any gloves for hand protection. An increase in percentage change for TEWL was seen for most of the job categories on all anatomical areas measured during the shift. Percentage change in skin surface pH and skin hydration varied among job categories. Conclusion: The research addressed the problem statement, with the stated objectives. It was hypothesised that workers at a packaging section of a base metal refinery are exposed to quantifiable levels of nickel through the dermal exposure route. The hypothesis was accepted and control measures together with future studies were recommended. The results confirmed that all workers at a base metal refinery are exposed to quantifiable levels of nickel through the dermal exposure route. Dermal exposure was evident on all anatomical areas for all job categories before the shift had commenced. Personal protective equipment was provided to all employees, but forklift drivers did not wear gloves when operating the forklift. Respirable exposure to nickel was below the OEL. Changes in TEWL and to a lesser extent skin hydration, suggest a deterioration in skin barrier function during the shift. Forklift drivers as well as plate washers may be the highest risk job categories in developing allergic contact dermatitis. Several measures to lower respiratory and dermal exposure to nickel are also recommended. / MSc (Occupational Hygiene), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014