Unlicensed driving remains a serious problem for road safety, despite ongoing improvements in traffic law enforcement practices and technology. While it does not play a direct causative role in road crashes, unlicensed driving undermines the integrity of the driver licensing system and is associated with a range of high-risk behaviours. This thesis documents three studies that were undertaken to explore the scope and nature of unlicensed driving, in order to develop more effective countermeasures to the behaviour.----- Study One utilised official road crash data from the Australian state of Queensland to compare the crash involvement patterns of unlicensed drivers with those of licensed drivers. The results confirmed that unlicensed driving is a relatively small, but significant road safety problem. Unlicensed drivers represent over 6% of the drivers involved in fatal crashes and 5% of those in serious injury crashes. Based on a quasi-induced exposure method, unlicensed drivers were found to be almost three times as likely to be involved in a crash than licensed drivers. In the event of a crash, those involving unlicensed drivers were twice as likely to result in a fatality or serious injury. Consistent with these results, the serious crashes involving unlicensed drivers were more likely to feature risky driving behaviours, such as drink driving, speeding and motorcycle use, than those involving licensed drivers.----- Study Two involved a cross-sectional survey of 309 unlicensed driving offenders who were recruited at the Brisbane Central Magistrates Court. The survey involved a face-to-face interview that took approximately 25 minutes to complete and achieved a response rate of 62.4%. A wide range of offenders participated in the study, including: disqualified and suspended drivers; expired licence holders; drivers without a current or appropriate licence; and those who had never been licensed. The results reinforced concerns about the on-road behaviour of unlicensed drivers. Almost one quarter of all the offenders reported driving unlicensed when they thought they might have been over the alcohol limit. Similarly, 25% reported exceeding the speed limit by 10 km/h or more on most or all occasions, while 15% admitted that they didn't always wear their seat belt. In addition, the results indicated that unlicensed drivers should not be viewed as a homogeneous group. Significant differences were found between the offender types in terms of their socio-demographic characteristics (age, education level, prior criminal convictions); driving history (prior convictions for unlicensed driving and other traffic offences); whether they were aware of being unlicensed; the degree to which they limited their driving while unlicensed; and their drink driving behaviour. In particular, a more deviant sub-group of offenders was identified, that included the disqualified, not currently licensed and never licensed drivers, who reported higher levels of prior criminal offending, alcohol misuse and self-reported drink driving. The results of Study Two also highlight the shortcomings of existing police enforcement practices. Almost one-third of the sample reported that they continued to drive unlicensed after being detected by the police (up until the time of the court hearing), while many offenders reported experiences of punishment avoidance. For example, over one third of the participants reported being pulled over by the police while driving unlicensed and not having their licence checked.----- Study Three involved the further analysis of the cross-sectional survey data to explore the factors contributing to unlicensed driving. It examined the influence of various personal, social and environmental factors on three aspects of the offenders' behaviour: the frequency of their driving while unlicensed; whether they continued to drive unlicensed after being detected; and their intentions to drive unlicensed in the future. This study was also designed to assess the capacity of a number of different theoretical perspectives to explain unlicensed driving behaviour, including deterrence theory and Akers' (1977) social learning theory. At an applied level, the results of Study Three indicated that personal and social factors exert the strongest influence over unlicensed driving behaviour. The main personal influences on unlicensed driving were: the need to drive for work purposes; exposure to punishment avoidance; personal attitudes to unlicensed driving; and anticipated punishments for the behaviour. The main social influences reflected the social learning construct of differential association, namely being exposed to significant others who both engage in unlicensed driving (behavioural dimension) and hold positive attitudes to the behaviour (normative dimension). At a theoretical level, the results of Study Three have two important implications for traffic psychology and criminology. Firstly, they provided partial support for Stafford and Warr's (1993) reconceptualisation of deterrence theory by demonstrating that the inclusion of punishment avoidance can improve the overall predictive utility of the perspective. Secondly, they suggested that social learning theory represents a more comprehensive framework for predicting illegal driving behaviours, such as unlicensed driving. This is consistent with Akers' (1977; 1990) assertion that formal deterrence processes can be subsumed within social learning theory.----- Together, the results of the three studies have important implications for road safety. Most importantly, they question the common assumption that unlicensed drivers drive in a more cautious manner to avoid detection. While the findings indicate that many offenders reduce their overall driving exposure in order to avoid detection, this does not appear to result in safer driving. While it remains possible that unlicensed drivers tend to act more cautiously than they would otherwise, it appears that their driving behaviour is primarily designed to reduce their chances of detection. In terms of countermeasures, the research indicates that a multi-strategy approach is required to address the problem of unlicensed driving. Unlicensed drivers do not represent a homogeneous group who are likely to be influenced by the threat of punishment alone. Rather, innovative strategies are required to address the wide range of factors that appear to encourage or facilitate the behaviour. Foremost among these are punishment avoidance and the need to drive for work purposes.

Syftet med arbetet är att behandla de faktorer som har stor påverkan på fastighetsmäklarens riskbenägenhet gentemot fastighetsmäklarlagen. Eftersom det finns många faktorer som kan påverka en individs riskbenägenhet så har arbetet begränsats till att omfatta: - Lönesättning. - Företagskultur. - Mäklarens upplysningsplikt och lockpriser. - SOU 2018:64 med hänsyn till tillsynen över mäklarföretag samt individerna inom dessa. - Verksam inom mäklarbranschen efter återkallad registrering. Den sistnämnda punkten har tagits med då vi under arbetets gång lade märke till att många mäklare som fått sin registrering återkallad fortfarande var aktiva inom branschen i en annan befattning. Arbetet tar upp mäklares (båda aktiva och de som fått sin registrering återkallad), intresseorganisationerna: FMF (Fastighetsmäklarförbundet) och Mäklarsamfundet samt Fastighetsmäklarinspektionens åsikter i frågan. En kvalitativ metod har använts där data från Fastighetsmäklarinspektionen har samlats in gällande mäklare som fått sin registrering återkallad mellan perioden 2016-2020. Datan har analyserat och dessa, 26, individer har sedan intervjuats (de som valde att ställa upp). Vi har även intervjuat aktiva mäklare, FMF, Mäklarsamfundet samt Fastighetsmäklarinspektionen för att få en mer rättvis bild av verkligheten. Intervjuerna skedde per telefon, med undantag för två intervjuer som skedde per mail. Bakgrunden till att vi valda telefonintervjuer var för att detta skulle underlätta i de fall följdfrågor dök upp och på grund av det rådande läget med Covid-19 så var detta det bästa alternativet. Det finns som sagt många faktorer som kan påverka en mäklares benägenhet att ta risker. Med risk i detta arbete menas att mäklaren utför en medveten handling som bryter mot fastighetsmäklarlagen för egen vinning. Ofta kan det vara på säljaren eller köparens bekostnad. Några faktorer som vi tror har stor påverkan på risk och som vi därför valt att undersöka är lönesättning och företagskulturen. Gällande lönesättningen, som ofta är provisionsbaserad inom mäklarbranschen, så finns det risk att intressekonflikter uppstår för mäklaren. Likaså finns det uppenbara intressekonflikter mellan köparens och säljarens intressen som mäklaren ska tillvarata. Dessa intressekonflikter anser vi ger ökade incitament för mäklaren att ta högre risker i sitt yrkesutövande. Utifrån vårt resultat så finns det indikationer som tyder på att samtliga individer som blev intervjuade delade samma uppfattning som oss. Företagskulturen är en mycket intressant och viktig aspekt för den enskilde mäklarens agerande. Både kollegor och chefer kan, enligt detta arbete och tidigare forskning, påverka den enskilde mäklarens riskbenägenhet. Som chef över ett mäklarkontor innehas ett stort ansvar för att sprida rätt kultur och etiska förhållningsregler gentemot säljare och köpare. Speciellt som nyanställd och nyexaminerad mäklare finns mycket att lära av det praktiska som till viss del inte tas upp under utbildningen. Att ha bra förebilder är en betydande faktor för att själv agera korrekt som mäklare. I lagförslaget för den nya fastighetsmäklarlagen så kommer även Fastighetsmäklarinspektionen kunna utöva tillsyn över chefer och personer i företagsledningen bland mäklarföretagen, förutsatt att detta förslag går igenom. Vi anser att detta lagförslag är ett steg i rätt riktning och att detta skulle kunna bidra till att riskbenägenheten inom branschen minskar. / The purpose of this thesis is to address the factors that have a major impact on brokers risk propensity towards Fastighetsmäklarlagen. Because there are many factors that can affect an individual's risk propensity this thesis has been limited to: - Wage setting. - Corporate culture. - Broker's obligation to provide information and bait prices. - SOU 2018:64 with regard to the supervision of brokerage companies and the individuals within them. - Active within the brokerage industry after revoked registration. The latter point has been taken into account because we noticed during the course of this thesis that many brokers who have had their registration revoked were still active within the industry in a different position. The thesis addresses brokers (both active and those who have had their registration revoked), interest organizations: FMF (Fastighetsmäklarförbundet), Mäklarsamfundet and Fastighetsmäklarinspektionen views on the matter. A qualitative method has been used where data from Fastighetsmäklarinspektionen has been collected and analysed regarding brokers who have had their registration revoked between the period 2016-2020. These individuals, 26, have thereafter been interviewed (those who chose to participate). We have also interviewed active brokers, FMF, Mäklarsamfundet and Fastighetsmäklarinspektionen to get a more accurate picture of reality. The interviews were conducted by telephone, with the exception of two interviews which were conducted by mail, as this was more convenient when we had follow-up questions and because of the prevailing situation with Covid-19, this was the best option. As mentioned, there are many factors that can affect a broker's tendency to take risks. By risk in this thesis we mean that the broker performs a deliberate act that violates Fastighetsmäklarlagen for his or her own gain. This is often done at the seller's or the buyer's expense. Some factors that we believe have a major impact on risk and therefore chose to investigate were wage setting and the corporate culture. With regard to wage setting, which is often commission-based in the brokerage industry, there is a risk that conflicts of interest arise for the broker. Similarly, there are obvious conflicts of interest between the interests of the buyer and the seller that the broker must take into consideration. We believe that these conflicts of interest provide increased incentives for the broker to take higher risks in his/hers professional practice. Based on our results, there are indications that all individuals who were interviewed shared the same view as us. The corporate culture is a very interesting and important aspect for the individual broker's behavior. According to this study and previous research, both colleagues and managers can influence the individual broker's risk propensity. As head of a broker's office, there is a great responsibility for spreading the right culture and ethical rules towards sellers and buyers. Especially as a newly hired and newly graduated broker, there is much to learn from the practical practice that to some extent does not have any room during the education. Having good role models is an important factor in acting correctly as a broker. In the bill for the new Fastighetsmäklarlagen Fastighetsmäklarinspektionen will be able to exercise supervision over managers and people in corporate management among the brokerage firms, provided that this bill will go through. We believe that this bill is a step in the right direction and that this could help to reduce the risk propensity in the industry.