Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Commercial formulations of the herbicide clomazone have been widely used in agriculture and fish farming to control weeds. Fish can be affected when the water reaches the drainage waterways, causing an imbalance in the aquatic ecosystem. In order to evaluate a possible contamination, we determined LC50 (96h) using a commercial formulation containing clomazone (Gamit®). We verified the metabolic, enzymatic, and genotoxic parameters as well as the oxidative stress in juvenile carp (Cyprinus carpio). Firstly, in order to determine the LC50 for the acute toxicity test, , the animals were exposed to the concentrations of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/L of clomazone for 96 h and the fish behavior was analyzed during this period. After exposure, we verified the activity of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in muscle and brain of the dead fish and the live carp. Secondly, fish were exposed to the herbicide for 7 days, both in field (rice crop) and laboratory conditions. The concentration used in the rice crop and the laboratory was 0.5 mg/L. After the experimental period of 7 days under laboratory conditions and 7, 30, and 90 days under rice crop conditions, brain, liver and muscle of fish were sampled to carry out the toxicological analysis. The parameters studied were enzymatic activity of AChE, catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-tranferase (GST) in different tissues of this species. Some markers of oxidative stress, such as protein carbonylation and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) levels in liver tissue were also analyzed. Some metabolic parameters such as glucose, glycogen, lactate, protein, and ammonia as well as amino acids in liver and muscle of carp were also measured. In plasma, we measured glucose, lactate, and protein. Thirdly, carp were exposed to approximately 15% of the LC50 (5.0 mg/L) for 7 days. We verified the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and micronucleus, and the comet test was performed in order to investigate the presence of DNA damage. In the first study we observed that fish exposed to 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/L showed behavioral changes and LC50 (96h) was 30.35 mg/L. In addition, it was found that the activity of the enzyme AChE showed no significant changes in the brain of the fish that died at the concentrations tested (30, 40 and 50 mg/L), and the muscle of dead fish had an increase in this enzyme when they were exposed to 50 mg/L of clomazone. The activity decreased significantly in the brain AChE of fish that remained alive after 96 h of exposure to 10, 20 and 30 mg/L, but increased in the muscle of the surviving fish exposed to all concentrations tested. In the second experiment results showed that fish exposed to 7 days had no changes in AChE under field conditions. However, a decrease in the activity of this enzyme in muscle was observed under laboratory conditions. During the same period of exposition, the parameters of oxidative stress conditions changed both under the field and in laboratory conditions. However, metabolic parameters were altered only under field conditions. After 30 and 90 days, AChE activity did not change under field conditions. Disturbances in oxidative stress parameters and metabolism in different tissues were evident in the tissues up to 90 days after treatment. The results showed that the activity of AChE changed only under laboratory conditions, and that oxidative stress associated with metabolic parameters can be good indicators of contamination for clomazone in C. Carpio in rice field conditions. In the third experiment, the results showed an increased formation of ROS and a significant micronucleus (MN) and DNA damage in erythrocytes after exposure to 5.0 mg/L of the herbicide clomazone. Given these results, we can conclude that the herbicide studied can be dangerous to Cyprinus carpio when exposed to it due to increased ROS, which in turn cause oxidative stress evidenced by changes in enzyme markers, metabolic, genotoxic and oxidative stress. However, further studies are needed in order to verify the safety of this herbicide is when associating rice and fish. / As formulações comerciais do herbicida clomazone têm sido amplamente utilizadas na agricultura e na piscicultura para controle de plantas daninhas. Os peixes podem ser afetados quando as águas de drenagem atingem os cursos d água, acarretando um desequilíbrio no ecossistema aquático. Para avaliar uma possível contaminação foi determinada a CL50 (96h) utilizando-se uma formulação comercial contendo clomazone (Gamit®) verficando-se parâmetros metabólicos, enzimáticos, genotóxicos e de estresse oxidativo em juvenis de carpas (Cyprinus carpio). Para o teste de toxicidade aguda, a fim de determinar a CL50, os peixes foram expostos às concentrações 10, 20, 30, 40 e 50 mg/L de clomazone em água durante 96 horas e o comportamento dos peixes foi analisado nesse período. Após a exposição, foi verificada a atividade da enzima acetilcolinesterase (AChE) no cérebro e músculo dos peixes mortos e das carpas que sobreviveram. No segundo experimento, os peixes foram expostos ao herbicida durante sete dias, tanto em condição de campo (lavoura de arroz irrigado) como de laboratório. A concentração utilizada na lavoura de arroz e no laboratório foi de 0,5 mg/L. Decorridos os períodos experimentais de 7 dias em condições de laboratório, e 7, 30 e 90 dias em condições de lavoura de arroz, foram retirados o cérebro, o fígado e o músculo dos peixes para realização das análises toxicológicas. Os parâmetros enzimáticos analisados foram a atividade da AChE, catalase (CAT) e glutationa S-transferase (GST). Também foram analisados alguns marcadores de estresse oxidativo, como a carbonilação de proteínas e níveis das substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS) no tecido hepático. Por fim, foram avaliados alguns parâmetros metabólicos como: glicose, glicogênio, lactato, proteína, amônia e os aminoácidos em fígado e em músculo de carpas. No plasma, foram feitas as dosagens de glicose, de lactato e de proteína. Em um terceiro experimento, as carpas foram expostas a aproximadamente 15% do valor obtido para a CL50 (5,0mg/L) por 7 dias. Posteriormente, foi verificada a formação das espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) e foram realizados os testes do micronúcleo e cometa (expresso por índice de dano do DNA). No primeiro experimento, foi observado que os peixes expostos a 20, 30, 40 e 50 mg/L, mostraram mudanças comportamentais e a CL50 (96h) foi 30,35 mg/L. Além disso, foi verificado que a atividade da enzima AChE não apresentou alterações significativas no cérebro dos peixes que morreram nas concentrações testadas (30, 40 e 50mg/L), e no músculo dos peixes mortos houve uma elevação na atividade desta enzima, quando eles foram expostos a 50 mg/L de clomazone. Já a atividade AChE diminuiu significativamente no cérebro dos peixes que sobreviveram após 96h de exposição a 10, 20 e 30mg/L, no entanto, aumentou no músculo dos peixes sobreviventes expostos a todas as concentrações testadas. No segundo experimento, os resultados mostraram que os peixes expostos a 7 dias não apresentaram alterações na AChE em condições de campo. No entanto, uma diminuição da atividade desta enzima no músculo foi observada em condições de laboratório. Durante o mesmo período de exposição, os parâmetros de estresse oxidativo mudaram tanto em condições de campo quanto em laboratório. Entretanto, os parâmetros metabólicos foram alterados apenas em condições de campo. Após 30 e 90 dias, a atividade da AChE não se alterou em condições de campo. Distúrbios nos parâmetros de estresse oxidativo e metabolismo foram evidentes nos tecidos até 90 dias após a aplicação. Os resultados mostraram que a atividade da AChE alterou apenas em condições de laboratório, e que marcadores de estresse oxidativo associados aos parâmetros metabólicos podem ser bons indicadores de contaminação para o clomazone em C. carpio em condições de campo. No terceiro experimento, os resultados mostraram um aumento da formação das EROs e significativo aumento dos MN e de danos no DNA dos eritrócitos após a exposição a 5,0 mg/L do herbicida clomazone. De acordo com os resultados obtidos, conclui-se que o herbicida estudado pode ser perigoso para as carpas quando expostas, devido ao aumento das EROs que por sua vez causam estresse oxidativo, evidenciado por alterações em marcadores enzimáticos, metabólicos, genotóxicos e de estresse oxidativo. Contudo, mais estudos serão necessários para verificar a segurança desse herbicida para os cultivos associados utilizando-se arroz e peixes.

Cette thèse comporte trois essais en économie des ressources naturelles. Le Chapitre 2 analyse les effets du stockage d’une ressource naturelle sur le bien-être et sur le stock de celle-ci, dans le contexte de la rizipisciculture. La rizipisciculture consiste à élever des poissons dans une rizière en même temps que la culture du riz. Je développe un modèle d’équilibre général, qui contient trois composantes principales : une ressource renouvelable à accès libre, deux secteurs de production et le stockage du bien produit à partir de la ressource. Les consommateurs stockent la ressource lorsqu’ils spéculent que le prix de cette ressource sera plus élevé dans le futur. Le stockage a un effet ambigu sur le bien-être, négatif sur le stock de ressource au moment où le stockage a lieu et positive sur le stock de ressource dans le futur. Le Chapitre 3 étudie les effects de la migration de travailleurs qualifiés dans un modèle de commerce international lorsqu’il y a présence de pollution. Je développe un modèle de commerce à deux secteurs dans lequel j’introduis les questions de pollution et de migration dans l’objectif de montrer que le commerce interrégional peut affecter le niveau de pollution dans un pays composé de régions qui ont des structures industrielles différentes. La mobilité des travailleurs amplifie les effets du commerce sur le capital environnemental. Le capital environnemental de la région qui a la technologie la moins (plus) polluante est positivement (négativement) affecté par le commerce. De plus, je montre que le commerce interrégional est toujours bénéfique pour la région avec la technologie la moins polluante, ce qui n’est pas toujours le cas pour la région qui a la technologie la plus polluante. Finalement, le Chapitre 4 est coécrit avec Yves Richelle. Dans ce chapitre, nous étudions l’allocation efficace de l’eau d’un lac entre différents utilisateurs. Nous considérons dans le modèle deux types d’irréversibilités : l’irréversibilité d’un investissement qui crée un dommage à l’écosystème et l’irréversibilité dans l’allocation des droits d’usage de l’eau qui provient de la loi sur l’eau (irréversibilité légale). Nous déterminons d’abord la valeur de l’eau pour chacun des utilisateurs. Par la suite, nous caractérisons l’allocation optimale de l’eau entre les utilisateurs. Nous montrons que l’irréversibilité légale entraîne qu’il est parfois optimal de réduire la quantité d’eau allouée à la firme, même s’il n’y a pas de rivalité d’usage. De plus, nous montrons qu’il n’est pas toujours optimal de prévenir le dommage créé par un investissement. Dans l’ensemble, nous prouvons que les irréversibilités entraînent que l’égalité de la valeur entre les utilisateurs ne tient plus à l’allocation optimale. Nous montrons que lorsqu’il n’y a pas de rivalité d’usage, l’eau non utilisée ne doit pas être considérée comme une ressource sans limite qui doit être utilisée de n’importe quelle façon. / This thesis consists of three essays in resource economics. Chapter 2 analyzes the effects of resource storage on welfare and on the resource stock, in the context of rice-fish culture. I develop a simple general equilibrium model, that has three central components: one open access renewable resource with logistic natural growth, two production sectors and storage of the good produced with the resource. Consumers store the resource when they speculate that the price of the resource will be higher in the future. Storage has an ambiguous effect on welfare, has a negative impact on resource stock at the period the storage takes place and has a positive impact for all following periods. Chapter 3 examines the effects of migration of skilled workers in a model of interregional trade in the presence of pollution. I develop a two-sector model of trade that incorporates both pollution and migration issues to show that interregional trade can affect the pollution level of a country composed of regions with different industrial structures. The mobility of workers amplifies the effects of interregional trade on the environmental capital. The region with the less (more) polluting technology is affected positively (negatively) by trade. Migration doesn’t affect the trade pattern. The region with the less polluting manufacturing industry always gains from trade. If the preferences over manufactures is relatively low, the region with the more pollutant technology can experience a loss from trade in the long run. Finally, Chapter 4 is co-authored with Yves Richelle. In this chapter, we consider the problem of efficiently allocating water of a lake among different potential users. We consider two types of irreversibility: the irreversibility of an investment that creates a fixed damage to the ecosystem and the irreversibility of the right to use the resource that comes from the legislation (legislative irreversibility). First of all, we determine the value of water for users. Then, we characterize the optimal allocation of water among users. With legislative irreversibility, we show that it is sometimes optimal to reduce the amount of water allocated to the firm, even though there is no rivalry in use. Moreover, we show that it is not always optimal to prevent the damage created by the irreversible vi investment. We define the context, in which it is optimal to intervene to prevent the damage. Furthermore, with irreversibility, we prove that the marginal value of water at the efficient allocation for users is not equalized. Overall, we show that in the case of no rivalry in use, unused water should not be seen as a limitless resource to be used in any way whatever.