Thesis (M. Phil.)--Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available in electronic version. Access restricted to campus users.

Thesis (M.S.)--Brigham Young University. Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 65-69).

Thesis (M.S.)--Brigham Young University. Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 67-71).

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Surface seals are widely used in South Africa. There are a number of reasons which include affordability, versatility and durability. There are, however, in some cases problems with stone loss that can lead to a shortened lifespan of the pavement. The loss of aggregate chippings in surface seals poses a major problem in the seal pavement industry. This study aims to identify the influencing factors that lead to these adhesive failures as well as to find optimum combinations of binders and aggregates at various conditions. Various binders commonly used in South African surface seal construction will be tested using the Bitumen Bond Strength (BBS) test method. The binders used in the study include 80/100 penetration grade bitumen, elastomer modified bitumen, bitumen rubber, elastomer modified emulsion and cationic rapid setting emulsion. Aggregates used in the study include dolerite, granite and quartzite. The test samples were cured and tested at two temperatures, 15 °C and 35 °C. The samples were also cured for 2, 6 and 24 hours respectively. The study tackles a wide range of variables in order to obtain a good understanding of adhesion properties of surface seals used in South Africa. Tests were repeated at least once to ensure repeatability and in some cases up to four repeats were performed. The loading rate at which the tests were performed had a significant influence on the BBS results. This rate varied which complicated the process of comparing the results. It was therefore decided to unify the loading rates. The BBS results exposed the difference between hot applied binders and emulsions. The former having significant stronger adhesion properties. It was also confirmed by the results that temperature plays a key role in the BBS results due to the visco-elastic properties of bitumen. These influences will be discussed along with others such as aggregate types and curing times. The type of failure is also discussed. Failure can either be adhesive or cohesive, the former being a failure between the aggregate and the binder while the later refers to a failure in the binder itself. The results of other students will also be discussed and compared to the results of this study. These include results of predecessors that tested emulsions as well as results from tests done on fractured aggregate surfaces and precoated aggregates. This study showed very similar results as these from other students, except for tests done with emulsions. It was discovered that the method of curing of the emulsions must be adapted to ensure proper curing of the emulsions. It was found that aggregates did not influence the BBS properties to the same extent as temperature and binder application type. The BBS results of hot applied binders also did not significantly increase as the curing time increased, but the results of emulsions showed some increase. However, the emulsions needed more time to cure properly. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Oppervlak seëls word algemeen gebruik in Suid-Afrika. Daar is verskeie redes hiervoor waaronder bekostigbaarheid,veelsydigheid en duursaamheid. Daar is egter in sommige gevalle probleme met klipverlies wat kan lei tot n verkorte leeftyd. Hierdie klipverlies ontstaan as gevolg van verskeie redes of kombinasies daarvan. Die studie beoog om hierdie faktore wat die adhesie eienskappe beïnvloed te identifiseer sowel as om optimum kobinasies van bindmiddels en klipsoorte te bewerkstellig by verkeie kondisies. ‘n Verskeidenheid van bindmiddels wat algemeen in Suid-Afrika gebruik word, word in die studie getoets met die Bitumen Bond Sterkte (BBS) toets metode. Die bindmiddels wat in die studie gebruik word sluit 80/100 penetrasie graad bitumen, elastomeer gemodifiseerde bitumen, bitumen rubber, elastomeer gemodifiseerde emulsie en kationiese snel settende emulsie. Die klipsoorte wat vir die studie gebruikword is doleriet, graniet en kwartsiet. Hierdie gesteentes word algemeen in die praktyk gebruik. Die toets monsters word ook by twee temperature gekuur en getoets. Hierdie temperature is 15 °C en 35 °C. Die toets monsters word ook onderskeidelik vir 2, 6 en 24 uur gekuur. Die studie ondersoek 'n wye verskeidenheid van veranderlikes om sodoende 'n goeie begrip van adhesie eienskappe van die oppervlak seëls wat in Suid-Afrika gebruik word te verkry. Elke toets was ten minste een maal herhaal om herhaalbaarheid te verseker. Sommige toetse was tot 4 keer herhaal. Die belasting tempo van die toetse het ‘n beduidende uitwerking op die BBS resultate as gevolg van die visko-elastiese eienskappe van bitumen. Hierdie tempo het gewissel en dit moeilik gemaak om die resultate te vergelyk. Daarom was daar besluit om die tempo van die toetse te verander na ‘n gelykvormige tempo. Daar was ‘n duidelike verskil in BBS resultate van die warm toegepaste bindmiddels en die emulsies. Die warm bindmiddels het baie hoër BBS resultate gelwer. Dit was ook bevestig in die resultate dat temperatuur ‘n beduidende rol speel in die BBS. Hierdie invloede sal bespreek word tesame met ander, soos klipsoorte en kuring tye. Die tipe versaking word ook bespreek. Versaking kan plaasvind as gevolg van adhesie of cohesie, waar adhesie versaking 'n versaking is tussen die klip en die bindmiddel terwyl cohesie versaking verwys na 'n versaking in die bindmiddel self. Die uitslae van die ander studente sal ook bespreek word en vergelyking word met die resultate van hierdie studie. Dit sluit die resultate van voorgangers in wat emulsies getoets het sowel as die resultate van toetse wat gedoen is op gebreekte klipoppervlaktes en bitumen behandelde klippe. Hierdie studie het baie soortgelyke resultate getoon as dié van ander studente, behalwe vir die toetse wat gedoen was met emulsies. Daar is vasgestel dat die metode van kuring van die emulsies moet aangepas word om behoorlike kuring van die emulsies te verseker. Daar is ook gevind dat klipsoorte nie die BBS eienskappe in dieselfde mate as temperatuur en bindmiddel toepassingstipe beïnvloed het nie. Die BBS resultate van warm aangewende bindmiddels het ook nie aansienlik verhoog soos die kuringstyd toegeneem het nie, maar die resultate van emulsies het wel 'n toename getoon. Die emulsies het wel meer tyd nodig gehad om behoorlik te kuur.

published_or_final_version / Civil Engineering / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

This investigation presents results of the temperature effect on durability properties (resistivity and diffusivity) and compressive strength of concrete with pozzolans, and the effect of pozzolanic admixtures on microstructure and chemical compositions of concrete pore solution. ... Temperature dependence of electrical resistivity and chloride diffusivity was studied by dynamic temperature tests. Accelerated curing regimes involving curing concrete specimens in 35À C lime water with different durations were tested. Compressive strength test, resisivity measurement and rapid chloride migration (RCM) tests were performed. A leaching method was used to measure pH and conductivity of concrete pore solution. ... The accelerated curing regimes were found to increase the compressive strength and resistance to chloride ion penetration at short-term and long-term. With the developed correlation between resistivity and migration coefficients, it is possible to employ the resistivity measurement as an alternative or replacement of the RCM test to evaluate resistance of chloride ion penetration of concrete. Pozzolanic admixtures were found to decrease both pH and conductivity of concrete pore solution as the replacement ratio increased. Moreover, the migration coefficients were found to be greatly correlated to the microstructure properties of concrete, such as porosity, formation factor and tortuosity. / by Yanbo Liu. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2012. / Includes bibliography. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / System requirements: Adobe Reader.

M. Tech. Civil Engineering / Black cotton soils are fertile and very good for agriculture, horticulture, sericulture and aquaculture. However, they are not good as road construction material because of their undesirable engineering properties and, therefore, need to be removed from site or modified to meet the minimum design standards required for roads subgrade material. This type of clay is very expansive and causes significant damages and problems on South African roads. Roads that are built on expansive clays are adversely affected by the behaviour of the expansive clay. Conventional methods of road design and construction over such material has proved to be very costly. It has been a practice in road construction to remove black cotton soil and replace with better quality soil. This results in high construction costs. The use of by-product and waste materials for modification and stabilization of engineering properties of expansive clays has environmental and economic benefits. On the other hand, problematic material may be treated in its natural state "in situ", thereby leading to reduction in cost. Thus, the modification of Black cotton soils using a mix proportion of fly ash and slagment may improve the engineering properties of the material. The overall objective of the study was to investigate and determine the appropriate mix proportion of fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag in the modification of engineering properties of black cotton soil for use in road construction.

No description available.

Thesis (PhD (Civil Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In both developing and developed countries, to ensure sustained economic growth the quest for optimal roads performance is an extremely high priority. A global increase in the use of foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion materials (BSMs) as a solution to roads maintenance, rehabilitation, and upgrading has become evident. This is driven by environmental policies aimed at conserving energy and limiting the exploitation of new borrows pits. It has therefore become imperative that BSMs are used optimally, and, in order to achieve this, practitioners need to understand the mechanisms that influence durability and long-term performance. The changes in the behaviour of materials and the failure mechanisms of BSM mixes are long-term phenomena. This implies that the study of the physicochemical and mechanical properties of the mixes is vital. Therefore, a fundamental understanding of the moisture damage and age-hardening characteristics, which are related to materials’ properties, is required. The main objective of this study is to advance BSM technology by assessing the influence of the selected materials on durability behaviour and long-term performance in all phases of application (i.e. mix design, construction, and in-service condition). This study begins with a comprehensive literature review of research dealing with the interactions of binder and mineral aggregates. The properties of bitumen (foamed bitumen or bitumen emulsion) and mineral aggregates were reviewed. This was followed by review into the colloidal behaviour of foam and emulsion and physicochemical and mechanical interaction with mineral aggregates. Factors influencing the interaction of BSMs were then identified. Finally, the fundamental theories on thermodynamics, hydrodynamics, and electrokinetics were used to describe the step-by-step process by which adhesive bonding and cohesion occur in BSMs. The mixture durability in terms of moisture damage was investigated. To achieve this aim, the physical and mechanical moisture-induced damage process was analysed. The test control parameters were established and a laboratory device to quantify these parameters designed. New moisture conditioning procedures were developed and demonstrated in this study. From the moisture induction simulation test (MIST) procedure, it became evident that pulsing water pressures into compacted and cured BSM mixes simulates the hydrodynamic effect that occurs in the field due to dynamic traffic loading. The different mix matrices typically applicable to the recycling processes – such as Hornfels-RAP and Quartzite crushed stone, stabilised with either foamed bitumen or bitumen emulsion and the addition of active filler (cement or lime) – were investigated. It was found that a new moisture-conditioning procedure using the MIST device and monotonic triaxial testing can distinguish those BSM mixes that are resistant to moisture damage from those that are less resistant. The validation of the MIST and monotonic test results was done using the APT device, which is the MMLS3 wet trafficking test. The results on both tests showed good correlations in evaluating and screening BSMs in terms of moisture susceptibility. Field temperature data was collected and a model to accurately simulate the curing of BSMs was identified and proposed for further investigation and validation. It was found from the field temperature data collected in this study that the temperature gradient on the study site varied according to the depth of the BSMs (that is, 10oC-17oC during winter and 17oC– 47oC during summer). Understanding the influence of the temperature conductivity and rate of evaporation is important for inferring moisture damage and age-hardening behaviour and proper selection of BSMs. The age-hardening behaviour of BSMs is linked to the durability properties and longterm performance of these materials. The fundamental characteristics associated with shortand long-term age hardening were investigated in this study. The short-term dimension involved assessing the age-hardening characteristics of the binder (foamed bitumen colloids and bitumen emulsion droplets) prior to the production of BSMs. The long-term study involved extracting and recovering the binder from the briquettes (made from different mixes) compacted in the laboratory and cores extracted from different field pavement sections which were in service for 8-10 years. The study found that the length of time bitumen is kept in circulation in the laboratory plant at elevated temperature (170oC–180oC) before making BSM-foam contributes to the ageing of the binder, especially after eight hours. The foaming process in itself was found not to alter the bitumen properties. It is recommended that a temperature range between 160oC- 165oC be used for the production of foamed bitumen with softer bitumen. This will not compromise its quality. In addition, the time of circulation of bitumen in laboratory plant should not be longer than three (3) hours. The rheological properties of the bitumen recovered from laboratory briquettes and cores from field pavement show that age hardening on foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion during in-service life occurred. The ageing also seemed to be dependent on the effect of traffic, with trafficked areas (i.e. on-wheel path and inner-wheel path) experiencing more ageing than untrafficked areas (i.e. between-wheel path). However, the extraction and recovery process was found to be complex, and produce uncertain results. Although the results show that binders in BSMs undergo age hardening, its distinct behaviour in BSM performance was not obvious from the extensive tests carried out in this study. The last part of the study contains its conclusions and recommendations. The study provides an insight into fundamental material durability properties, and this will assist in improving the current procedure for selection, combining and formulation of the mix matrices for BSMs. In addition, the study provides guidelines that will enable practitioners to confidently apply a mix that is durable and long-lasting. The specific durability-related issues addressed in this study are substance for future research. This novel solution to the application of BSMs will benefit all parties involved in the development of pavement recycling technology. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Om volgehoue ekonomiese groei te verseker in beide ontwikkelende en ontwikkelde lande, geniet die soeke na die optimale werkverrigting van paaie ’n baie hoë prioriteit. ‘n Wêreldwye toename in die gebruik van skuimbitumen en bitumen-emulsiemateriale (BSMs) as ’n oplossing vir padonderhoud, rehabilitasie en opgradering is merkbaar. Dit word meegebring deur die omgewingsbeleide wat die ontginning van nuwe leengroewe beperk en besparing van energie bevorder. Die korrekte gebruik van hierdie materiale vereis dat die meganismes wat die duursaamheid en langtermyn-werkverrigting daarvan beïnvloed, deeglik verstaan word. Die verandering in materiaalgedrag en falingsmeganismes van BSM materiale is langtermynverskynsels. Dit impliseer dat bestudering van die fisiochemiese en meganiese eienskappe van die mengsels uiters belangrik is. Dis dus voor die hand liggend hoe belangrik vogbeskadiging en verharding met tyd, wat verwant is aan materiaaleienskappe, is. Die hoofdoelwit met hierdie studie is om die vooruitgang van BSM tegnologie te versnel deur dit moontlik te maak om gekose materiale te evalueer op grond van hulle invloed op duursaamheid en langtermyn-werkverrigting in alle toepassingsfases (naamlik mengontwerp, konstruksie en dienstoestand). Hierdie studie begin met ’n uitgebreide literatuuroorsig oor fundamentele begrippe van die karakterisering van interaksie van die bindstof en die minerale-aggregate. Inligting oor bitumen (skuimbitumen en bitumen emulsies) en eienskappe van minerale aggregate is bestudeer. Dit is gevolg deur ’n studie van die fundamentele begrip van die kolloïdale gedrag van skuim en emulsie, asook fisiochemiese en meganiese interaksie met minerale aggregate. Faktore wat die interaksie van BSM-materiale beïnvloed is geïdentifiseer. Die basiese teorie van termodinamika, hidrodinamika en elektrokinetika is daarna gebruik om stap vir stap die proses en formulering van adhesie-binding en kohesie in die BSMs, wat in hierdie studie aangebied word, te beskryf. Die kwantifisering van mengsel-duursaamheid in terme van vogbeskadiging is ontwikkel. Om hierdie doel te bereik, is die fisiese en meganiese proses van beskadiging deur vogindringing geïdentifiseer. Die gekontroleerde parameters is bepaal en ’n laboratoriumapparaat is ontwerp om hierdie parameters te kwantifiseer. Nuwe vogkondisioneringsprosedures is ontwikkel en in hierdie studie gedemonstreer. Van prosedures van voggeïnduseerde sensitiwiteitstoetsing (Engels: moisture induction simulation test (MIST)) was dit duidelik dat pulsering van waterdruk in BSM materiale die hidrodinamiese effek naboots wat in die veld bestaan as gevolg van dinamiese verkeerslaste. Verskillende mengselmatrikse wat tipies is van hergebruik, soos byvoorbeeld hoornfels-hersikleerde asfalt produk (Engels: recycled asphalt product (RAP)) en vergruisde granietklip, met skuimbitumen of bitumenemulsie gestabiliseer en met byvoeging van aktiewe vulmateriaal (sement of kalksteen), is ondersoek. Daar is bevind dat nuwe vogkondisioneringsprosedures (soos bepaal deur MIST apparaat en drie-assige toets) kan onderskei tussen BSM materiale wat weerstandig is teen vogbeskadiging en dié wat minder weerstandig (vatbaar) is. Die geldigheid van die MIST en monotone toetsresultate is bepaal deur gebruik van die APT apparaat wat ’n MMLS3 nat verkeerstoets is. Die resultate van beide toetse toon goeie korrelasie in die keuring van BM materiale in terme van vogvatbaarheid. In hierdie ondersoek is veldtemperatuurdata versamel en die toepaslike model om verouderende BM lae akkuraat te simuleer is geïdentifiseer en voorgelê vir verdere ondersoek en verifikasie. Daar is uit veldtemperatuurdata bevind dat temperatuurgradiënt op die betrokke terrein gewissel het met die dikte van die BSM, naamlik 10oC-17oC gedurende die winter en 17oC-47oC gedurende die somer. Begrip vir die invloed van temperatuuroordragkoëffisiënt en verdampingstempo is belangrik by die afleiding van vogbeskadiging en verharding met ouderdom en die korrekte keuse van BSM materiale.Verouderingsverhardinggedrag van BSMs is verwant aan die duursaamheidseienskappe en langtermynwerkverrigting van hierdie materiale. Die basiese karakteristieke wat met kort- en langtermyn verouderingsverharding geassosieer word, is in hierdie studie ondersoek. Die klem op die kort termyn is geplaas op die verouderingsverhardingsgedrag van die bindstof (skuimbitumen kolloïdes en bitumen-emulsiedruppels) voordat BSMs vervaardig word. In die lang termyn evaluasie het die studie ekstraksie en herwinning van bindstof uit brikette wat in die laboratorium gekompakteer is (van verskillende mengsels) en uit kerns verkry vanaf verskeie plaveiselgedeeltes na 8-10 jaar diens ingesluit. Die ondersoek het bevind dat die tydsverloop waarin bitumen in sirkulasie gehou is by verhoogde temperatuur (170oC-180oC) in die laboratorium-aanleg voordat BSMs vervaardig is, veral indien na 8 uur, bydra tot die veroudering van die bindstof. Die skuimproses op sigself verander nie die bitumeneienskappe nie. Daar word aanbeveel dat temperature tussen die grense 160oC-165oC gehandhaaf word vir produksie van skuimbitumen met sagter bitumen sonder dat die kwaliteit benadeel word en dat die sirkulasietyd nie 2 tot 3 ure behoort te oorskry nie. Die reologiese eienskappe van die herwinde bitumen vanuit laboratoriumbrikette en kerns van plaveisels toon dat ouderdomsverharding van skuimbitumen en bitumen-emulsie tydens die diensleeftyd plaasvind. Die veroudering is skynbaar ook afhanklik van verkeerseffekte, met belaste areas (in wielspoor of binne wielspoor) wat ’n hoër mate van veroudering toon as onbelaste areas (tussen wielspore). Die ekstraksie- en herwinningsproses op sigself was egter bevind as baie kompleks met uiters onseker resultate. Dit het gelei tot onsekere gedrag in terme van ouderdomsverharding van die BSM bindmiddel (skuim of emulsie). Alhoewel resultate toon dat die bindmiddels ouderdomsverharding ondergaan het, is die BSM werkverrigting nie duidelik uit die uitgebreide toetse wat in hierdie studie uitgevoer is nie. Die laaste deel van die studie bevat gevolgtrekkings en aanbevelings. Die studie lewer insig in die fundamentele duursaamheidseienskappe van die materiaal, wat bydra tot verbetering van die huidige prosedure van seleksie, saamstelling en formulering van die mengmatriks vir BSMs. Verder voorsien dit ’n metode wat in die praktyk gebruik kan word om met vertroue duursame mengsels met lang diensbaarheidsleeftye te vervaardig. ’n Nuwe oplossing en vooruitgang in die toepassing van BSMs is daargestel tot voordeel van alle partye betrokke by die ontwikkeling van herwinningstegnologie.

Thesis(PhD (Civil Engineering))-- University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Bitumen based road surfacing seals and asphalt wearing courses have been used by society's Engineers "to counter the damage to the existing unsurfaced roadways by the newly developed automobile with its rubber driving wheels" since the early 1900's. Early experiments were conducted with both tar and bitumen to find a suitable material to alleviate the situation, and ongoing research has been carried out through the past century and into the new millennium, throughout the world, examining improvements, from materials used, to design and construction methods. However, there is still much to be understood, improved and refined, when considering road surfacing seal design. Pavement designers have the choice of utilizing either an asphalt (graded aggregate remanufactured with a bitumen binder and applied as a complete product) or a surfacing seal (including variations of bitumen binder sprayed onto the road surface, with the addition of single size stones, either in one or two layers of binder and aggregate, i.e. single or double seals) as a pavement wearing course. Current road surfacing seal design practice depends on empirical analysis and experience, being primarily a volumetric based assessment of bitumen application. This research project assesses South African seal design philosophy, investigates design areas where review or updating is required to accommodate changing bitumen sources and types, and traffic loading. Seal performance criteria are examined, with the development of a matrix of influences on seal performance. Using this, the need for a seal design method based on mechanistic material properties is proposed, and the prototype example of such a numerical model using finite element method is presented. To contribute further towards a performance related seal design method, the feasibility of modelling of road surfacing seals using mechanistic principles was examined. The potential of developing failure and fatigue criteria or relationships to enable assessment of the expected seal performance, with inclusion of different component material characteristics and variations, varying traffic and environmental conditions, was also examined. From assessment of literature, and understanding of the components of the seal, pavement, and influencing factors, a choice of numerical model of seal performance was made. The Finite Element Method (FEM) Analysis was selected for the purpose of modelling seal performance. The model was developed to enable examination of the interaction of individual seal components (i.e. stone and bitumen), at micro-mechanic scale. The prototype 3-dimensional numerical seal model was undertaken in 2002 and 2003 at Technical University Delft, using the CAPA research program. On the basis of the linear calculations the developed numerical prototype model is able to provide insight into seal behaviour and distinction between mechanical (seal geometry) and chemical (components) seal aspects, and insight into stress and strain development in the different seal types. Simulations of different seal, environmental and traffic scenarios are provided to demonstrate the potential of the model (excluding seal aggregate interlock and embedment effects at prototype stage). In order to provide data for the verification of the prototype numerical model, and to further contribute to the development of a performance related seal design method, performance tests were developed, with a new tool for assessment of comparative seal performance using the Model Mobile Load Simulator Accelerated Pavement Testing apparatus. The performance of each different seal binder type - Penetration grade Mumen, SBS, SBR, EVA and Bitumen Rubber - was undertaken. A methodology for the assessment of in-service seal performance was developed, and the performance of the respective seals reported. The results of this examination showed that each binder type has its unique contribution to seal performance. These new performance tests will be able to assist designers in the added determination of the fundamental binder properties on seal performance, and the seals' ability to contribute to the overall performance of the pavement. An additional comparative performance test method was developed to enable assessment of the effect of ageing and moisture, to complement the MMLS results. In summary, the performance testing has assisted in identifying the critical parameters a seal designer should consider during the design process. From this research, it is evident that the current seal design method requires further development to able designers to predict the effect of: Varying axle loads, tyre pressures and design speed; Varying characteristics of the different binders, (i.e. temperature - viscosity relationships, adhesion and visco-elastic behaviour); on the performance of seals. The major areas for suggested improvement in current seal design methods towards a performance based design method are: inclusion of variable traffic load and environmental characteristics, including temperature and moisture influences, and inclusion of mechanistic material characteristics into the design methodology. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Bitumengebaseerde padoppervlakseellae en asfaltslytlae is sedert die 1900's deur ingenieurs gebruik as teenwig teen die skade wat die pas ontwikkelde voertuig met sy rubberwiele aan bestaande ryvlakke sonder oppervlakbehandeling aangerig het. In vroeëre eksperimente wat daarop gemik was om 'n geskikte materiaal te vind om die probleem teen te werk, is 'n kombinasie van teer en bitumen gebruik. Sedertdien word voortgesette navorsing steeds wêreldwyd gedoen om verbeterings te ondersoek, nie net ten opsigte van materiale nie maar ook ontwerp- en konstruksiemetodes. Wat die ontwerp van padoppervlakseëling betref is daar egter heelwat wat reg begryp, verbeter en verfyn moet word. Plaveiselontwerpers het die keuse om of 'n asfalt te gebruik (gegradeerde aggregaat voorafvervaardig met 'n bitumen bindmiddel en aangewend as 'n klaarproduk), of 'n oppervlakseël (een laag of twee lae [m.a.w. enkel- of dubbelseël] bitumen bindmiddel met aggregaat [enkelgrootte klippies] bygevoeg, gespuit op die padoppervlak). In die praktyk berus die ontwerp van padoppervlakseëling tans op empiriese analise en ervaring (wat hoofsaaklik 'n volumetriesgebaseerde assessering van die aanwending van bitumen is). Hierdie navorsingsprojek doen 'n waardebepaling van die Suid-Afrikaanse filosofie van seëlontwerp, en ondersoek ontwerpterreine wat hersiening of bywerking benodig om vir veranderende bitumenbronne en -tipes, asook verkeerslading, voorsiening te maak. Met die ontwikkeling van 'n matriks van die invloede op seëlprestasie is die kriteria vir seëlprestasie ondersoek. Op grond daarvan word aangevoer dat daar 'n behoefte is aan 'n seëlontwerpmetode gebaseer op die meganistiese eienskappe van materiaal, en word 'n voorbeeld van 'n numeriese modelprototipe wat die eindige-element-metode gebruik, voorgelê. Ten einde 'n verdere bydrae te lewer tot die ontwikkeling van 'n prestasiegerigte seëlontwerpmetode, is die uitvoerbaarheid van die modellering van padoppervlakseëllae gebaseer op meganistiese beginsels, ondersoek. Daar is ook ondersoek ingestel na die potensiaal vir die ontwikkeling van kriteria vir die vasstel van mislukking en vermoeidheid of verhoudinge wat die assessering van die verwagte seëlprestasie (ingesluit die verskillende kenmerke en variasies van seëlkomponentmateriaal en wisselende verkeers- en omgewingsomstandighede) moontlik kan maak. Met oorweging van die bestudeerde literatuur en 'n begrip van die komponente van seël, plaveisel en inwerkende faktore, is 'n keuse van 'n numeriese model vir seëlprestasie gemaak. Die eindige-element-metode (Finite Element Method [FEM]) is gekies as die analitiese metode vir die modellering van seëlprestasie. Die model is ontwikkel om die ondersoek van die interaksie tussen individuele seëlkomponente (klip en bitumen) op mikromeganiese skaal moontlik te maak. Die ontwikkeling van die driedimensionele, numeriese, model-seëlprototipe is tussen 2002 en 2003 by die Delft Tegniese Universiteit gedoen, met gebruikmaking van die CAPA-navorsingsprogram. Wat lineêre berekenings betref, kan die ontwikkelde numeriese modelprototipe 'n insig gee in seëlgedrag en in die onderskeid tussen aspekte van seëlgeometrie (meganies) en seëlkomponente (chemies), asook in die spanning- en vervormingsontwikkeling van die verskillende tipes seël. Simulasies van verskillende seël-, omgewings- en verkeerscenario's word voorgestel om die potensiaal van die modelprototipe te demonstreer. Met die oog daarop om data vir die verifikasie van die numeriese modelprototipe te voorsien, en om verder tot die ontwikkeling van 'n prestasiegerigte seëlontwerpmetode by te dra, is prestasietoetse, met 'n nuwe instrument vir die assessering van vergelykende seëlprestasie met behulp van die Model Mobile Load Simulator Accelerated Pavement Testing apparaat, ontwikkel. Die prestasie van elke verskillende tipe seëlbindmiddel- penetrasiegraad bitumen, SBS, SBR, EVA en bitumenrubber - is getoets. 'n Metodologie vir die assessering van die ingebruiksprestasie van seëllae is ontwikkel, en daar is verslag gedoen oor die prestasie van die verskillende seëllae. Die resultate van die ondersoek het getoon dat elke tipe bindmiddel 'n eie unieke bydrae tot die prestasie van die seël lewer. Die nuwe prestasietoets sal ontwerpers help met die bepaling van die grondliggende bindmiddeleienskappe wat by seëlprestasie ter sprake is, asook van die seël se vermoë om tot die algehele prestasie van die plaveisel by te dra. 'n Bykomende prestasievergelykingstoetsmetode vir die assessering van die effek van veroudering en vogtigheid is ontwikkel om die MMLS-resultate aan te vul. Ter opsomming, die prestasietoetsing het bygedra tot die identifisering van die kritiese parameters wat die seëlontwerper tydens die ontwerpproses in gedagte behoort te hou. Die navorsing wat gedoen is, dui daarop dat die huidige seëlontwerpmetode verder ontwikkel moet word om ontwerpers in staat te stel om die effek van die volgende te kan voorspel: Wisselende aslas, banddruk en ontwerpspoed; Verskillende kenmerke van die verskillende bindmiddels (bv. temperatuur viskositeitsverhoudinge, vashegting en viskoëlastiese gedrag). Wat huidige seëlontwerpmetodes betref, is die hoofterreine waarop 'n verbetering voorgestel word, die insluiting van veranderlike verkeerslas- en omgewingskenmerke, ingesluit die invloed van temperatuur en vogtigheid, en insluiting van meganistiese kenmerke van materiaal in die ontwerpmetodologie.