This thesis is directed towards the comparison of active and passive bolts systems to reveal which system shows the most favorable behavior for improved performance, safety and cost. This was achieved through the incorporation of new technologies, field data, numerical modeling and established theories in ground control analysis. All in all, a better understanding of the quasi-static behavior of underground coal mine roofs has been attained. Over the summer of 2010, the Department of Mining and Mineral Resource Engineering at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, in conjunction with Andy Hyett of YieldPoint Inc., Peabody and the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), installed over one hundred and seventy instrumented extensometers, closure meters, shear-meters, passive rebar roof bolts, tension rebar roof bolts, and double lock rebar roof bolts at three coal mines. Two of the three coal mines were room-and-pillar mines and the other a longwall mine. Data was routinely collected over a nine-month period to analyze shearing, dilation, and axial bolt loading occurring within the rock mass, and entry closure occurring between the excavation hanging-wall and foot-wall. Based on bolt loadings, shear, axial behavior and statistical analysis, initial results indicate that active roof bolts do not show superior performance for the added cost. Active bolts seem to show no difference from passive bolts in the initial loading phase either, indicating that tension bleed-off is a concern soon after installation; however, this observation was not captured, as the data loggers were not intrinsically safe. Considering the modeling results, the trends in axial loading seem to be calibrated but the magnitudes are not. Computer modeling also shows the potential to accurately model in situ bolt performance; however, challenges remain in obtaining a good match between numerical modeling and field observations.

The Swedish metal company Boliden has since the early 20th century been mining deposits in the mining field commonly referred to as the Skelleftefield in northern Sweden. The youngest of the active mines is the Kankberg mine which is an underground mine whose reserve contains gold and tellurium. The reserve of the mine is split-up into multiple smaller orebodies that are all being mined continuously using a cut- and fill mining method in combination with pillars utilized to ensure stability in certain stopes.   The Kankberg mine is unique in the sense that it is situated in very hard rock. That in combination with medium stresses as results of the mining depth results in favorable conditions in terms of needed rock support. Boliden therefore wants to reduce the amount of support material used, without compromising the stability of the support system and the security of the underground personnel.   The goal of this thesis is to present a recommend steel fiber dosage to be used in the shotcrete. The recommendation is based upon:   Test results of round determinate panel (RPD) tests according to the ASTM C1550-12a (American Society for Testing) standard. Reviews of earlier shotcrete tests conducted by Boliden. A literature study focused on fiber dosages in other underground projects. Stress analyses using numerical methods. Rock inspections and rock classifications. International guidelines regarding fiber dosages used in shotcrete.   The results presented within this thesis suggest that the fiber dosage in the shotcrete recipe can be lowered, in favor of cost optimization. The optimal dosage, when factoring in the issues related to the continuous mining, the energy absorption capacity of the shotcrete and general recommendations from studied literature was determined being a dosage of 22.6 kg/m3. The thesis further suggests that large scale tests should be conducted on a full scale before the lowered dosage is adopted in practice.

Devido ao esgotamento de jazidas economicamente lavráveis a céu aberto, migrou-se para a lavra subterrânea. Porém, como isso é uma prática antiga, alguns métodos de lavra subterrânea deixaram de ser economicamente viáveis devido ao aprofundamento da lavra. Um exemplo disso é a lavra de carvão no sul do Brasil, onde jazidas exploradas a céu aberto ou mesmo pelo método de Câmaras e Pilares, começam a vislumbrar seu exaurimento técnico de lavra, por altos custos e baixa produtividade, o que norteia a busca por alternativas econômicas mais lucrativas. Uma destas alternativas é o método Longwall, praticamente desconhecido no Brasil, porém com crescente e não nova intenção de implementação no país. Isso já se refletiu em tentativas de operações e em novos estudos conceituais de viabilidade para o estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Estes fatores justificaram este estudo que teve por objetivo lançar luz sobre a lavra de carvão pelo método de Longwall, de modo a respaldar a sua implementação no Brasil. Sendo assim, o método foi descrito com enfoque em seus principais pontos, tais como, geomecânica e planejamento; além de apresentar estudos conceituais de lavra em dois cenários. O primeiro projeto conceitual apresenta um cenário tradicional objetivando implementação no Rio Grande do Sul; o segundo, tem por objetivo apresentar relativa flexibilidade do método, adaptando-o a um cenário não tradicional. Concluiu-se com este trabalho que fatores como geomecânica e correto planejamento de lavra são imprescindíveis para o sucesso da implementação do método. A partir dos resultados do estudo conceitual I e da versatilidade proposta no estudo II se justifica o aprofundamento nos estudos de operações por Longwall no país. / Due to the exhaustion of economically mining deposits, migrated to the underground mining. However, as this is an ancient practice, some underground mining methods are no longer economically viable due to the deepening of the mining. An example of this is the mining of coal in southern Brazil, where deposits exploited opencast or even by the Room and Pillars, begin to envision your fatigue, mining technical high costs and low productivity, which guides the search for more profitable economic alternatives. One of these alternatives is the Longwall method, virtually unknown in Brazil, but with growing and not new intention of implementation in the country. It already was reflected in attempts to operations and on new conceptual studies of feasibility for the state of Rio Grande do Sul. These factors justify this study that aimed to shed light on the mining of coal by Longwall method, in order to support its implementation in Brazil. Therefore, the method has been described with focus on its key points, such as, geomechanics and planning; In addition to presenting conceptual studies of raging in two scenarios. The first conceptual design features a traditional setting with the objective of implementation in the Rio Grande do Sul; the second aims to introduce on the flexibility method, adapting it to a non-traditional setting. This work concluded that factors like geomechanics and correct planning of mining are indispensable for the successful implementation of the method. From the results of the study and conceptual versatility proposal in study II justification the deepening in the studies of Longwall operations in the country.

A interação entre rocha e metal, na forma de operações como perfuração, escavação e cominuição, dá origem a dois efeitos: um desejado, desagregação da rocha e outro indesejado, desgaste do metal. Como o desgaste, dramaticamente, influencia o desempenho dos equipamentos, é fundamental para estabelecer uma base para equações de predição de taxas de desgaste potencial. Neste contexto, Golovanevskiy e Bearman (2008), propuseram mais um método para avaliação da abrasividade. Este método, ensaio de abrasão por impacto deslizante (Gouging Abrasion Test), é realizado em condições de alta tensão/alto impacto de desgaste e é caracterizado pela maior taxa de remoção de material de todos os modos de desgaste e, portanto, representa o modo mais severo de desgaste abrasivo.O método consiste, basicamente, de uma ponteira cilíndrica com uma ponta cônica de 90º. Esta ponteira, em trajetória pendular, atinge uma amostra de rocha com energia de impacto de aproximadamente 300 joules e velocidade da ordem de 5,2 m/s. Semelhante à metodologia de cálculo de abrasividade Cerchar (CAI), o Gouging Abrasion Index (Gi) é calculado como sendo a média do diâmetro da ponta cônica, após desgaste, em milímetros e multiplicado por 10. Este trabalho verificou a adequabilidade do Gouging Abrasion Test, para um pequeno número de amostras de rocha que representam, qualitativamente, os principais tipos de rocha encontrados no Brasil e a sua correlação com outros ensaios consagrados como resistência à compressão, desgaste Amsler e dureza Knoop. Está análise mostrou alta correlação entre Gi e dureza knoop (R² = 0,94), baixa correlação com desgaste Amsler (R² = 0,41) e nenhuma correlação com resistência à compressão uniaxial. / The rock-metal interaction, like occurs in operations as drilling, excavation and crushing, generates two effects: the desired rock degradation and the undesirable metal wear. As the wear dramatically influences the process performance of the equipment, it is critical to establish a basis for predictive equations to estimate potential wear rates. Following this context, in 2008 Golovanevskiy and Bearman proposed a method for abrasiveness evaluation. The method, Gouging Abrasion Test, employs high-stress load gouging/sliding impact wear and is characterized by the highest material removing rate than all wear modes, therefore representing the most severe type of abrasive wear. The method consists, in a few words, of a steel wear tool with a 90o sharp conical tip. This tip attacks a rock sample in a swinging trajectory with a impact energy of more than 300 joules and a speed around 5,2 m/s. Like the Cerchar Abrasivity Index (CAI) calculation, the Gouging Abrasion Index (Gi) is determined as 10 times de average diameter in millimeters of de conical tip (now flat) after one event of wear. This work intends to improve the knowledge about Gouging Abrasion Test, and evaluates its suitability in a small group of rocks that represents some of the main types to be found in Brazil\'s rock cutting, drilling and crushing works. Its relation to other frequent tests like uniaxial compressive strength, Amsler abrasive wear and Knoop hardness were also verified. The results show high correlation between Gi and Knoop hardness (R2 = 0,94), low correlation with Amsler wear (R2 = 0,41) and no relation to uniaxial compressive strength.

This thesis presents ground control best practices in weak rock environments including an augmentation to the existing Span Design curve by adding 463 case histories of RMR76 values ranging from 25 to 60. A Neural Network analysis of this data has been added and compared to the existing Span Design data of 292 case histories. Ground support is almost always used in weak rock environments, though the type of support used can vary widely. The development of the weak rock augmented Span Design Curve has also been calibrated to four different support categories; Category A: Pattern Friction Sets, Category B: Pattern Friction Sets with Spot Bolting of Rebar, Category C: Pattern Friction Sets with Pattern Rebar Bolts and Category D: Cablebolting, Shotcrete, Spiling, Timber Sets or Underhand Cut and Fill. Category A is considered “Unsupported” with an average Factor of Safety less than 1.2. Categories B, C and D are considered “Supported” with average Factors of Safety greater than 1.2. All categories are compared the original Critical Span Design Curve presented by Lang (1994). However, only Category A can be accurately compared to the original Critical Span Design Curve as it is “Unsupported” as well. Category A yields good results, however, Categories B, C and D do not, but still demonstrate that spans can remain stable at lower RMR76 values. Design of underground man-entry type excavations in North America relies heavily upon empirical analysis. This design requires a higher Factor of Safety than other non-man entry type excavations. A comparison of the calculated ½ span failure Factor of Safety between all the categories is also presented. The contribution this research provides to the mining industry is the "Unsupported" Weak Rock Updated Span Design Curve and awareness pertaining to the potentially detrimental effects of using resin grounted rebar in weak rock masses and the false sense of security that the use of resin grouted rebar may instill. It is also shown that spans in the “Unstable” zone of the new “Unsupported” Weak Rock Updated Span Design Curve can possibly be stabilized if detailed engineering design is applied to obtain “Supported” status. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Mining Engineering, Keevil Institute of / Graduate

M.Tech. / Artisanal mine of sandstones especially in rural area are facing numerous challenges including the use of inadequate tools for the processing of sandstones. Since the current processing technique has limitations which consist of the use of hammer and chisels, there is a need to develop environmentally friendly and cost effective techniques for the processing of sandstones. In this project, six different sandstones samples (yellowish, blackish, reddish, greenish, greyish and whitish) from QwaQwa rural area were collected and characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) and an optical microscope. In addition, physical properties of sandstones were also carried out including compressive strength, dielectric properties and water absorption. Furthermore sandstones samples were irradiated using multi- and single- mode microwave cavities to investigate the effect on the mineralogy of sandstones. The analysis of mineralogical change was carried out using XRD. Additionally a microwave multimode cavity was used to investigate the weight loss of sandstones after being irradiated. A microwave cavity was designed based on the characteristics of sandstones and it was simulated. A photovoltaic solar system was sized to power the microwave cutter. The experimental work was carried out on a laboratory scale. The XRD analysis revealed that quartz was the major mineral present in all sandstones which confirms that QwaQwa sandstones are quartz based sandstones. Feldspar minerals such as illite and albite were also found. Additional minerals were identified at trace level including glauconite, kaolonite, crysobalite and orthoclase. On the other hand, the XRD results of the irradiated samples using a single- and multi- mode cavity for 60 seconds revealed a strong presence of quartz which means no significant changes were observed. However, some minor overlapped peaks suspected to be muscovite (KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2) in three samples (blackish, greyish and yellowish) were noticed. XRF study showed that the chemical elements available in the six sandstones samples are: aluminium, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, manganese, sodium, phosphorus, silicon and titanium.

The testing undertaken for this dissertation is intended to help quantify the various time-dependant deformation processes around typical deep level hard rock tabular excavations. Three mechanisms were investigated and two different hard rock types, Ventersdorp Lava and Elsburg Quartzite were used. Uniaxial compression creep studies were done as the first part of the study followed by shear creep studies on discontinuities where crushed lava and crushed quartzite as well as a natural gouge were used as infilling. An important conclusion made is that the relationship between grain size and infilling thickness is more important than previously might have been assumed. The last part of the study consisted of triaxial post-failure relaxation tests. As far as could be determined, this is the first time triaxial post-failure tests were attempted, particularly on typical South African hard rocks. An important finding of this study is that during compression creep as well as during triaxial post-failure relaxation the amount of energy dissipated for the lava is significantly less than for quartzite. For mines operating at great depth (more than 2000m) the implication is that the rock material might relax much more slowly than might have been assumed and this means that after failure the rock mass continues to store large amounts of strain energy. This study provides the first data available for energy change calculations in fractured rock masses. Three mechanisms of time-dependant deformation were quantified providing valuable data for numerical investigations. / Dissertation (MSc (Mine Strata Control))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Mining Engineering / unrestricted

Thesis: M.S., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 1979 / Bibliography: leaves 204-212. / by Peter Michael Switchenko. / M.S. / M.S. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil Engineering, 1982. / MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ENGINEERING. / Bibliography: leaves 161-168. / by Michael Archangel Semeraro, Jr. / M.S.

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil Engineering, 1979. / MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ENGINEERING. / Bibliography: leaves 201-208. / by William Simon Dershowitz. / M.S.