Magister Artium - MA / The main purpose of this study was to investigate and examined the politics in the production of archaeological knowledge especially in rock art, at academic, heritage institutions and national and global level. It aims to trace and examine the development and movement of particular hypotheses or interpretations and their appropriateness in the study and management of rock art heritage in southern Africa. / South Africa

This study is a comparative examination of the age, authorship and interpretation of aboriginal rock painting sites situated on the shores of the Churchill River of northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba. The twenty presently known sites were recorded in the years 1965, 1966, 1967 and 1969 by the author.<p>The study combines written descriptions of the sites and their settings with reproductions of the symbols found at each site. Techniques for recording and reproducing rock paintings, developed during the course of the field studies, are described.<p> Geographical and stylistic relationships of the paintings to other rock painting occurrences in the Canadian Shield are examined. Data derived both directly and indirectly from native Indian residents of the area is incorporated, along with historical observations on the occurrence and interpretation of the paintings.<p> Several sets of the Churchill River paintings are at least 150 to 200 years old, while others may be considerably more recent. Specific dates of origin cannot presently be assigned to most of the sites; the potential applicability of various dating techniques is discussed.<p> Evidence given supports an Algonkian (undoubtedly Cree) inspiration and authorship for these rock paintings, with religious observance being the basic motivation for their creation.

This study is a comparative examination of the age, authorship and interpretation of aboriginal rock painting sites situated on the shores of the Churchill River of northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba. The twenty presently known sites were recorded in the years 1965, 1966, 1967 and 1969 by the author.<p>The study combines written descriptions of the sites and their settings with reproductions of the symbols found at each site. Techniques for recording and reproducing rock paintings, developed during the course of the field studies, are described.<p> Geographical and stylistic relationships of the paintings to other rock painting occurrences in the Canadian Shield are examined. Data derived both directly and indirectly from native Indian residents of the area is incorporated, along with historical observations on the occurrence and interpretation of the paintings.<p> Several sets of the Churchill River paintings are at least 150 to 200 years old, while others may be considerably more recent. Specific dates of origin cannot presently be assigned to most of the sites; the potential applicability of various dating techniques is discussed.<p> Evidence given supports an Algonkian (undoubtedly Cree) inspiration and authorship for these rock paintings, with religious observance being the basic motivation for their creation.

This study aimed to: 1) characterise the individual San parietal art rock art paint colours; 2) relate paint compositions to erosion susceptibility; 3) determine if paint pigments can be related to pigment samples excavated from a Shelter deposit, and/or a variety of field samples; and 4) determine if paint samples from geographically distinct sites can be distinguished on their composition. A combination of mineralogical (X-ray diffraction (XRD), synchrotron micro-XRD (μ-XRD)) and chemical (energy dispersive X-ray micro-analysis (EDX), X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), and synchrotron micro-XRF (μ-XRF)) analytical techniques were used. Maqonqo Shelter (MQ), 35 km south-east of Dundee, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, was the primary study site chosen as it contained both a large number of paintings, as well as a large deposit. Thirty paint (of various colours) and 3 blank wall samples were collected using Silver Mylar tape and analysed using a combination of EDX, μ-XRD and μ-XRF techniques. Sixty two large (> 2.5 g) ‘ochre’ pieces were selected from the upper three layers of the deposit and analysed using XRD, XRF and EDX. A further 63 small pieces (< 2.5 g) were analysed using μ-XRD and μ-XRF techniques. To compare the MQ paint samples with potential source materials, three distinct sample sets were collected. The first included samples of the Shelter wall and surface rocks located near the painted panel (analysed by XRD, XRF and EDX). A second sample set of 17 samples was collected from the surrounding landscape (± 3 km radius of MQ; analysed by XRD and XRF). Their selection was based on ease of accessibility, degree of pulverulence, and perceived Fe content i.e., red and/or yellow colouration. No white sources were found. A third set of 11 samples (obtained from six sites, analysed using XRD and XRF) was collected within ± 50 km distance of the Shelter. Their selection was based on old mining survey reports that detailed the location of Fe ore outcrops. Paint samples from three additional shelters i.e., Fergies Cave (FC), Giants Castle Game Reserve, central Drakensberg; Sheltered Vale (SV), Mount Currie District, south-western KwaZulu-Natal; and Twagwa Shelter (TW), Izingolweni District, southern KwaZulu-Natal, were collected to compare paint composition over distance. Site selection was determined according to the following criteria: 1) the shelters had to reside a significant distance away from the primary site so as to minimise any possible interaction that might have existed between the authors of the respective artworks (each site is at least 100 km distant from the other); 2) each had to be located upon a distinct geological formation so that external influences from different regions, and their possible affects on the paint samples, could be noted; and 3) the climatic regimes of each of the shelters should be relatively distinct. Fifteen paint and nine blank wall samples were collected from the three shelters (three each of red, white and blank samples; analysed using EDX, μ-XRD and μ-XRF), with the exception that no white samples were collected from FC. In total, 673 EDX, 212 μ-XRD, 378 μ-XRF, 98 XRD, 98 XRF and 6 ICP-MS traces were produced and analysed. Due to the extremely heterogeneous nature of the paint samples at the microii scale, the more generalised EDX reduced window scans were used as the basis of the paint samples’ characterisation, with the data obtained from the more precise μ-XRD and μ-XRF techniques providing additional supportive information. Irrespective of colour, almost all of the MQ paint samples had elevated Ca contents that tended to increase in the order of black < orange £ red and yellow < pink < white. The predominant Ca-based mineral was gypsum, although Ca-oxalates, whewellite and weddellite, were also present. The blank samples collected from MQ also had high gypsum content, but no Ca-oxalate. It is thus proposed that the Ca-oxalates formed after the painting event and were derived from the original paint constituents. The white pigments consisted of gypsum (dominant), anhydrite, bassanite and whewellite, or a combination thereof. Whewellite increased within increasing paint depth, while gypsum showed the reverse trend. This indicates that, whilst both gypsum and whewellite were originally present within the original paint pigment, additional gypsum has been added via secondary evaporite deposition. Although initially considered to be sourced along with the gypsum, another potential whewellite source is organic additives. The most likely source for the white pigments would be precipitates found on sandstone walls of shelters near MQ. Of more immediate importance, however, is that the pigments, being gypsum based, are water-soluble and thus susceptible to erosion. Most of the orange paints had an elevated Al content and contained gibbsite, suggesting bauxitic material associated with locally sourced dolerite within the Ecca Series within KwaZulu-Natal (as evidenced by their respective Ti levels). Two samples were so similar that it is likely that the same pigment was utilised in the creation of both images. Two samples did not contain high Al contents, however, indicating that they were probably sourced from the soft, ochreous material found within local Fe nodules. A consistent combination of goethite and haematite, together with a low Al and elevated Ti content, indicate that the yellow and red samples were probably sourced from Fe nodules found locally, the red samples differing from the yellow pigments primarily in their higher haematite content. A low Si and relatively low Fe content discounts red sands/clays and Fe-ores as sources of the red pigments. The red samples were ‘thinner’ than the other samples with quartz contents comparable to those of the blank samples. The thin nature of the red paints, the erratic distribution of whewellite upon the paint surfaces, the dominance of gypsum and, to a certain extent quartz, all strongly suggest that the red paints are at least partly absorbed into the surface of the Shelter wall. This, together with the strong staining ability of haematite, is probably the most important reason that the red pigments have outlasted images painted in other colours. It may also account for the high degree of variability found within the red paint dataset, though age differences between the sampled images could also be a contributing factor. The single dark red paint sample, except for an elevated Mn content, was very similar in many ways to the red paint samples analysed. The only readily available pigment source identified that had both low Al and high Fe and Mn contents, was plinthite. The pink samples represented the ‘middleiii ground’ between the red and white paints, suggesting that this colour was the result of a blending of the two. The black paint sample had the highest recorded Fe content of the entire paint dataset. A high Mn and relatively low Al content suggest that a soft inner core of an Fe nodule was used in its manufacture. The presence of maghemite and a dark colouration strongly suggest that the manufacture also involved calcination. The initial distinction between the paint and excavated samples was that the former all exhibited elevated Ca and S values due to the deposition of secondary evaporite minerals. Even when taking these additional deposits into account, however, the two datasets still remained distinct indicating that the excavated materials sampled were not utilised in the manufacture of the MQ paints. A potential exception concerned the orange paint samples, which were similar in composition to both doleritic samples from deeper excavated layers and the local (weathered doleritic samples) and distant (bauxite samples) field samples. Whilst weathered dolerite/bauxitic material was clearly the source of the orange pigments, a more detailed investigation is needed to find a precise location. No other relationships between the paint pigments and the excavated pigments and field samples were established. A comparison of the blank samples from all four study sites showed that the techniques used could distinguish between different sites despite sampling the smallest and, relatively speaking, poorest quality samples. The FC blank samples had elevated C and Ca contents (associated with Caoxalates). The conditions within this Shelter favour the formation of weddellite and whewellite, the former not typically found at the other three sites. In addition, low K, Si and Al contents (often associated with sandstone matrix minerals) indicate that the surface of the relatively dense, compact Cave sandstone is more resistant to physical erosion compared to the other sites, and/or FC shelter experiences a high amount of secondary deposition, with the result that a majority of the samples are composed of evaporite minerals. The SV samples were composed primarily of the evaporite-type minerals, with only minor sandstone ‘contamination’ indicated by quartz and kaolinite. The quartz content, whilst not always high, was present in most of the samples analysed, possibly indicating a greater amount of more uniform surface erosion (relative to the other sites). The TW blank samples were distinct from the other shelters’ as they contained no Ca-based minerals but did contain the very rare mineral schlossmacherite. A comparison of the paint colours also revealed differences between the different shelters. Whilst the white samples from SV and MQ are dominated by whewellite and gypsum (minerals probably present within the pigments when they were applied), the presence of quartz, sanidine and apatite in the SV samples indicated a degree of shelter wall ‘contamination’, with anhydrite, bassanite and glushinskite suggesting climatic variations that favoured various evaporite depositional regimes. The TW white paint contained minimal secondary deposited minerals common in the other shelters. The one mineral that is dominant within the TW samples is minamiite. As this mineral was not identified in any of the blank samples, it is likely that this mineral originates from the original pigment source. The TW white paints also contained 10 to 40 times more Zn than those recorded for any of the other paint samples. This was possibly present within the structure of greigite. The red SV samples could be distinguished from MQ red samples by the presence of wall ‘contaminants’ in a manner similar to that described for the white samples. The TW samples indicate a change in pigment source and/or manner of paint manufacturing technique, for these red samples contained minamiite. This mineral is white and thus its selection could not have been based on colour but rather it must represent a paint additive. With the exception of only one sample from TW, no goethite was found within any of the red samples collected from the three additional sites indicating a different haematite source to that of MQ. An interesting facet of this study, although not directly addressed, concerns what the results do not show with respect to the compositional nature of the pigments analysed. Most texts available today list a number of pigment sources stated to have been utilised in the manufacture of the San parietal rock art. This study has shown that very few of these potential sources were utilised within the four shelters investigated. In addition, this study has also highlighted the presence of minerals about which little is known, yet which appear to be commonly associated with parietal rock art. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

This study examines the history by which the local communities became separated from their ancestral heritage at Chongoni World Heritage Site in Malawi and then uses this knowledge to improve the management and conservation of rock art sites in the area. It demonstrates how various forces of the distant and immediate past came into play and systematically disconnected the Chewa communities around Chongoni area from their ancestral rock shelters once used by scores of generations for many important functions such as rock painting, rainmaking ceremonies and boys and girls initiation rituals. It shows that the separation of these communities from their heritage happened gradually in various episodes spread over the past 150 years. The key factors that directly or indirectly led to the separation included the early conquest of the Chewa communities by the Ngoni and other groups; conflicts with early Christian missionaries; heavy handed policies of the British colonial government; social and political failures of the post-independent state; the rise of multiparty politics, governance and human freedoms and others. Using local evidence, I build a case for each of the mentioned factors and shows how this community is still in danger of not only being completely separated from their ancestral heritage but also losing the remaining strands of their unique traditions. The study concludes by making recommendations for instituting participatory approaches in the management and conservation of Chongoni World Heritage Site.

MSc., Faculty of Science, University of Witwatersrand, 2011 / Studies of San rock art in southern Africa have appealed to researchers for specificities of individual rock art sites in order to counter the prevailing practice of conceptualising San rock art as a homogenous entity. This research attempts to analyse social interaction through looking at diverse ethnographies and how such ethnographies can reveal information regarding one rock art site. Individual rock art sites like Xoro Gwai can start to unravel the nuanced, diverse and complex nature of San religious beliefs and rites and how these beliefs were affected or influenced by social contact with other social formations.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2015. / Heritage management has been a growing phenomenon throughout the world. This growth is due to the increasing necessity to protect the world’s cultural heritage. Heritage management has been closely linked with community participation as well as laws and policies that protect the heritage. Furthermore, site use is also of importance to discover how the heritage is presented, protected and managed. These are the three components that will be the focus of my research. The implementation of heritage management requires a management plan that clearly stipulates and outlines specific procedures to be followed. An ideal management plan includes the components mentioned above, in that it states the stakeholders involved, how the heritage place will be preserved and how the legislation will be used to ensure the protection of such places. This research focuses on rock art sites as the cultural heritage places and the importance of protecting them, with specific focus on rock art sites from South Africa and Mexico. The objective of this study is to analyse the different management plans from sites chosen from the two countries, compare the management plans and recommend a best practice for management plans constructed for rock art sites. The hope is that the recommendations will contribute to managing rock art sites as well as to the International Collaboration formed between South Africa and Mexico.

In this research the contemporary art of the !Xun community in Platfontein, Kimberley is used as a case study to ascertain whether contemporary Bushman art, contrary to the mid-nineteenth century perception that it was child-like, and the present-day sense that it belongs to the past, is based on recognisable aesthetic principles. A functional-semiotic approach is applied, which takes the signs in painting, separates and categorises them in order to locate a painting’s iconic, indexical and symbolic signs. This analysis is done to assess whether or not contemporary Bushman art can be validated as a valuable area of contemporary art and whether creative individuals among the !Xun community may be viewed not as relics of a past people but as legitimate contemporary artists. This argument is revealed through post-structuralist analysis of the individual artworks of two particular !Xun artists. Interviews with !Xun artists uncovered the ways in which they represent themselves in their art, not only for themselves but for the viewers of that art. The constituents of the power relations between art dealers and the artists are also considered. The problematics of ‘authentic Bushman art’ is discussed and ‘authenticity’ in this regard is shown to be a contestable issue. The research then moves to an examination of the impact of modernity on the Bushmen and their art. Mindful of the economic exploitation of these artists in the present day, recommendations are made concerning forms of development which include teaching the artists about art markets, in order to empower them to engage effectively with dealers. Further recommendations are made toward the creation of a code of conduct which would apply to indigenous arts and the relationships between artists, dealers and consumers of the art. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

Most researchers who study rock image sites tend to be interested in the meaning of images, even though they could obtain more empirical information about these images and their physical location. Furthermore, very little of the work done in the past on rock image sites has been systematic. In this thesis I address the dearth of detailed information on the images and their context. This thesis presents a thorough examination of the images of the twenty-seven pictograph sites in the Lake of the Woods, in the Canadian Shield. These pictograph sites were selected because they exhibit traits evident in rock image studies in other parts of the world. / This study is based on data collected during three months of fieldwork conducted in 2001. Images were found on cliff faces and inside caves. New images and new sites were found and identified. / Here, as elsewhere, the choice of theoretical approach influences the fieldwork, analysis, and search for meaning. Each prescribes the types of questions asked and determines the levels of understanding obtained about whichever form of archaeological evidence is being considered. The different but complementary theoretical approaches should be employed in a definite order. The same data must be examined in sequential order using these different approaches to increase the potential quantity and quality of information gained. Archaeologists should use the following sequence of approaches: culture-historical, contextual, followed by either the homological, or analogical approaches, or a combination of the latter two. / Classifying and describing any image is very difficult, since the level of description given to an image affects the way in which it can be analysed, and heavily influences the possible outcome of any discussion of perceived meaning. A rigorous examination of the images of these sites was conducted to (a) identify the possible vocabulary of images, (b) determine whether combinatory, rules exist, (c) reconstitute the life history of each site, and (d) ascertain whether the images can be related to other indigenous images to determine if this can provide information about the meaning(s) of the rock images. In assessing the meaning of the rock images, the images of a few birch bark scrolls were considered, since it was posited that a detailed investigation of the scrolls, the ethnographic record, and their pictographs might provide some answers regarding the meanings of the images found on the rock faces.

Thesis (M.A. (Anthropology)) - Rhodes University, 2005.