Alternative energy technology has been used widely in rural electrification program (REP) all over the world for many years now. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind and biomass, are the preferred choices given the abundant resources available on site and the sophistication of the technologies involved. Combinations of two or more of the resources, together with an energy storage system and occasionally a conventional energy generator, create a hybrid system, which is reliable and durable. In Malaysia, solar photovoltaic (PV) base systems, implemented on a large scale, can provide round-the-clock electricity services for areas that are inaccessible by the electricity grid network. One of Malaysia s REP initiatives is solar PV-diesel hybrid systems for 160 schools in rural Sabah. The systems have been in operation for several years, but studies in the program are limited. Thus, understanding the system operation and functional is a highly valuable experience and lessons can be learned for implementation of the rural electrification program (REP). The overall aim of the research is to evaluate the REP in social, organizational, technical and economic aspects of the program that the findings can facilitate the stakeholders, such as the policy makers and implementers for current and future approaches, measures and decisions on REP activities and initiatives in Malaysia. This thesis has described the approaches on investigating the rural school s electrification program in Sabah. Analysis of system operation and function is conducted by examining and evaluating the recorded data from the system. A set of technical indicators is introduced in the form of system performance indicators and system reliability indicators. Furthermore, comparisons are made between the actual system operation and the optimum system configuration based on the actual data of the renewable energy resources, electricity energy consumption and costs in installation and operation. A field study was conducted at fifteen rural schools that use the solar PV system to determine the effectiveness of the program in transforming the rural schools to better learning environments and livelihoods. The findings indicate that most system components were found to be in good operation, and the operation of the solar PV system agreed to the indicators of system performance and system reliability. Additionally, the system reliability indicators can be seen as a vital tool not only to identify the values of the system capacity but also for prediction measures in analysing the durability of each component. The analysis of the actual system operation provides optimum values in terms of technical indicators, whereas the optimized system shows economic advantages. The findings show a high degree of responses from the end users in the level of satisfaction, appreciation, motivation and academic excellence. Nevertheless, several improvements are required to enhance the sustainability elements of the REP, especially from the organizational and governance perspectives. These includes effective coordination among the rural development-related agencies, the improvement on the transition between installation and maintenance work, efficient reporting process and training and awareness program need to be extended to every end user for sustainability in information and knowledge.

Access to electricity is a crucial component of achieving SDG 7, which aims to ensure clean energy for all. However, not all people in Botswana have access to electricity, and power generation is dominated by coal power. To address the electricity access issue, the Botswana government has implemented two programs: the Rural Electrification Programand the National Electricity Standard Connection Cost Program. This study focuses on investigating the effectiveness of these government programs, as well as the drivers of and barriers to residential rooftop solar PV. The primary aim of the study is to provide recommendations for policy makers, while also contributing to enhanced knowledge among solar PV distributors and academia. To achieve the research objectives, a field trip to Botswana was conducted to interview various stakeholders. Additionally, a literature review and ananalysis of policy documents were executed. The study’s results reveal a difference in the success of the two government programs, leading to a gap between the share of grid-connected villages and the share of people with access to electricity. Interms of residential rooftop solar PV, the study identifies numerous drivers, such as increased reliability and reduced power bills. However, there are also several barriers to residential rooftop solar PV, including a conservative mindset among decision-makers that favors coal power, lack of incentives, low affordability, social acceptance risks, lacking maintenance, and insufficient knowledge among both inhabitants and policymakers. Based on the results, the study provides recommendations for policymakers to ensure full electricity access and accelerated residential rooftop solar PV implementations. / Tillgång till el är avgörande för att uppnå SDG 7 som syftar till att säkerställa hållbar energi för alla. Samtidigt har samtliga invånare i Botswana inte tillgång till electricitet och dessutom domineras elproduktionen av kolkraft. För att överkomma problemet med tillgång till electricitet har Botswanas regering implementerat programmen Rural Elecrtification Program och National Electricity Standard Connection Cost Program.  Den här studien fokuserar på att utvärdera dessa statliga program samt på att identifiera drivkrafterna och hindren för solkraft för hushåll. Det primära syftet med studien är att ge rekommendationer till beslutsfattare. Studien ämnar även bidra till ökad kunskap bland solcellsdistributörer och den akademiska världen. För att åstadkomma detta genomfördes en studieresa till Botswana under vilken intervjuer med olika intressenter hölls. Dessutom genomfördes en litteraturstudie och en analys av policydokument.  Studiens resultat påvisar en skillnad i framgång hos de statliga programmen och att det leder till att andelen nätanslutna byar är högre än andelen invånare med tillgång till el. När det gäller solkraft för hushåll har flertalet  drivkrafter för dess implementering identifieras. Till dessa hör ökad försörjningstrygghet och minskade elräkningar. Det finns dock även många hinder för ökad implementering av solkraft för hushåll. Några av dessa är ett konservativt tankesätt bland beslutsfattare som gynnar kolkraft, brist på incitament, låg betalningsförmåga, låg grad av social acceptans, bristande underhåll samt otillräcklig kunskap bland både invånare och beslutsfattande. Baserat på resultaten presenteras rekommendationer riktade till beslutsfattare för att säkerställa att alla i Botswana har tillgång till elektricitet samt för att öka implementeringen av solkraft för hushåll i Botswana.