Une étude paléomagnétique et structurale au nord du Chili met en évidence que le remplissage sédimentaire du bassin d'Atacama s'est accumulé dans un contexte compressif depuis le Crétacé Supérieur. Les données paléomagnétiques montrent des rotations horaires et suggèrent qu'une zone de cisaillement transpressif dextre NE-NNE a contrôlé les rotations pendant le Paléogène. Une étude de restauration en carte de la déformation des Andes Centrales indique que la formation de l'orocline est principalement associée à la déformation de la Cordillère Orientale. La variabilité spatiale et la grande quantité des rotations dans la marge chilienne suggèrent deux épisodes de rotation, un épisode de rotation dans l'avant arc au cours du Paléogène et une rotation globale de toute la marge pendant la déformation de la Cordillère Orientale. En conclusion les résultats de cette étude démontrent que la déformation compressive et les rotations tectoniques sont des éléments clef de la déformation Andine.

<p>Superchilling is a method that can be used to prolong the shelf life of foods by partial freezing. Knowledge of the effects of this method on both the shelf life and quality of foods is important in order to find optimal processing and storage conditions and is of great importance both for the industry and for the consumers. Different raw materials of muscle foods were studied with the purpose of creating a basis for further improvements of both the process and the storage conditions. Products from the commercially important species pork (both roasts and rib steaks), Atlantic salmon (both vacuum packed and wrapped fillets) and Atlantic cod (vacuum packed fillets) were chosen to represent different muscle foods.</p><p>Based on both sensory and microbial evaluations, the superchilled storage improved shelf life of pork roasts from 2 to 16 weeks, and shelf life might even be further prolonged if temperature is kept more constant. The H2S-producing bacteria in superchilled cod fillets did not exceed the limit of consumption during the whole storage period of six weeks, while the microbial shelf life of the ice chilled fillets was estimated to be 8 days after processing.</p><p>Quality changes have been studied with focus on biochemical and physiochemical properties. One of the major goals in meat and fish processing is the ability to retain water and it was observed that drip loss was lower in superchilled samples compared to traditionally chilled samples in all species studied. However, the subsequent liquid loss was higher both in pork roasts and in cod fillets.</p><p>The extractability of protein was used as a tool to monitor protein denaturation. It was found that myofibrillar proteins denatured more easily during superchilled than during traditionally chilled storage both in salmon and in cod fillets. This was confirmed by electrophoresis in salmon. The amount of free amino acids were higher in cod than in salmon and increased more during superchilled storage than during ice chilled storage indicating exoproteolytic activity during storage. Activities of cathepsins B and B + L in salmon fillets were relatively stable during the storage period in all storage groups, demonstrating that these enzymes are not deactivated at the selected storage temperatures and may therefore lead to softening during subsequent chilled storage.</p><p>In superchilled samples of all species studied, white spots emerged on the product surface. However, the appearance of spots did not correspond either to higher drip loss or to higher microbial growth on surface of these samples. On the contrary, the total plate counts of superchilled samples were lower than of the other storage groups. This observation also applied to iron agar counts on cod fillets. These findings are interpreted as a strong indication of that the spots most likely were not of microbial origin.</p><p>The optimal superchilling process and storage conditions remains to be found for the products studied. From the present results it is reasonable to suggest that optimal storage temperature for the vacuum packed salmon fillets is found between the superchilled temperatures in the present experiments. The quality both of the pork roasts and the cod fillets would probably benefit from a storage temperature slightly closer to 0 °C than those studied. It can also be assumed that the control of the superchilling process is more essential to cod than to salmon and pork. In addition, the properties of the raw material are crucial in order to obtain high quality of products after processing and storage.</p> / Paper I-III are reprinted with kind permission from Elsevier, sciencedirect.com

Superchilling is a method that can be used to prolong the shelf life of foods by partial freezing. Knowledge of the effects of this method on both the shelf life and quality of foods is important in order to find optimal processing and storage conditions and is of great importance both for the industry and for the consumers. Different raw materials of muscle foods were studied with the purpose of creating a basis for further improvements of both the process and the storage conditions. Products from the commercially important species pork (both roasts and rib steaks), Atlantic salmon (both vacuum packed and wrapped fillets) and Atlantic cod (vacuum packed fillets) were chosen to represent different muscle foods. Based on both sensory and microbial evaluations, the superchilled storage improved shelf life of pork roasts from 2 to 16 weeks, and shelf life might even be further prolonged if temperature is kept more constant. The H2S-producing bacteria in superchilled cod fillets did not exceed the limit of consumption during the whole storage period of six weeks, while the microbial shelf life of the ice chilled fillets was estimated to be 8 days after processing. Quality changes have been studied with focus on biochemical and physiochemical properties. One of the major goals in meat and fish processing is the ability to retain water and it was observed that drip loss was lower in superchilled samples compared to traditionally chilled samples in all species studied. However, the subsequent liquid loss was higher both in pork roasts and in cod fillets. The extractability of protein was used as a tool to monitor protein denaturation. It was found that myofibrillar proteins denatured more easily during superchilled than during traditionally chilled storage both in salmon and in cod fillets. This was confirmed by electrophoresis in salmon. The amount of free amino acids were higher in cod than in salmon and increased more during superchilled storage than during ice chilled storage indicating exoproteolytic activity during storage. Activities of cathepsins B and B + L in salmon fillets were relatively stable during the storage period in all storage groups, demonstrating that these enzymes are not deactivated at the selected storage temperatures and may therefore lead to softening during subsequent chilled storage. In superchilled samples of all species studied, white spots emerged on the product surface. However, the appearance of spots did not correspond either to higher drip loss or to higher microbial growth on surface of these samples. On the contrary, the total plate counts of superchilled samples were lower than of the other storage groups. This observation also applied to iron agar counts on cod fillets. These findings are interpreted as a strong indication of that the spots most likely were not of microbial origin. The optimal superchilling process and storage conditions remains to be found for the products studied. From the present results it is reasonable to suggest that optimal storage temperature for the vacuum packed salmon fillets is found between the superchilled temperatures in the present experiments. The quality both of the pork roasts and the cod fillets would probably benefit from a storage temperature slightly closer to 0 °C than those studied. It can also be assumed that the control of the superchilling process is more essential to cod than to salmon and pork. In addition, the properties of the raw material are crucial in order to obtain high quality of products after processing and storage. / Paper I-III are reprinted with kind permission from Elsevier, sciencedirect.com

This thesis evaluates the adaptive significance of annual cycles on the migratory behaviour of Baltic salmon (Salmo salar L.). The studies have included field experiments as well as laboratory studies gf maturity and migratory behaviour patterns of smolts and postsmolts mainly from the Angerman river population. Contrasting to the phenotypical elasticity in life-history traits, Baltic salmon was found to have a rather strict temporal organization of their annual behavioural patterns. Two year old smolted Baltic salmon showed drastic differences in migratory behaviour when compared in tanks containing either fresh or brackish water. Freshwater kept fish showed an annual cycle where downstream displacement in the upper water column was followed by a stationary behaviour, indicating a readaption to a freshwater life. Fish in brackish water behaved as a migratory fish throughout tne study. Baltic salmon also showed differences in maturation patterns in fresh and brackish water. Three summer old males detained in freshwater all matured sexually the following autumn. If transferred to sea and kept in net- pens a low proportion matured, mainly previously matured males. Furthermore there was a size- dependent relationship of sexual rematuration. Many small previously matured males did not migrate, similarly small previolusly matured males were unable to respond to shifts in the environment. With larger size the alternatives of sexual maturation and high growth rate wi more related to the environmental conditions the fish experienced. A hypothesis has been tested assuming that Baltic salmon migration is influenced by an annual time program. According to the hypothesis the migratory distance covered in the Baltic should be a result of a migratory activity sequence rather than a definite goal orientation. Fish detained before release generally showed a shorter distance between release point and area of recapture compared to fish released at normal time of smoltrun. The migratory distance appeared to be inversly related to the period of delay before release. A seasonal difference in migratory propensity was recorded. An instantaneous mortality curve for Baltic salmon during seaward migration and early sea-phase was estimated based on recapture data on sequentially related fish. The weekly mortality rate decreased from an initial mean of 271 during onset of migration, to 3.51 in mean during autumn. The high risk of mortality during the first part of migration indicated that strong selective forces act on a precise seasonal timing of migration. / <p>Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Umeå universitet, 1988, härtill 5 uppsatser</p> / digitalisering@umu

Diss. (sammanfattning). Umeå : Sveriges lantbruksuniv. / Härtill 6 uppsatser.

This thesis deals with important factors that affect the temporal organization of emergence and early survival of Baltic salmon (Salmo salar L.). The study population was obtained from the Norrfors hatchery (63°50'N,20°05'E), Umeälven (Ume river) in Northern Sweden. The main objectives of the thesis has been to study; a: the effect of female and egg characteristics on embryonic survival, b: the effect of egg size, temperature and photoperiod on the emergence pattern and c: the impact of early or late emergence on survival in relation to predation and limited territorial space. The main results are summarized as follows: (1) Fecundity and egg size increased with increasing weight of females. No effect of female size were found on egg colour. Longer impoundment and later stripping increase egg colour. Egg mortality was not correlated with egg colour. Stripping date was found to have the strongest effect on mortality. (2) Egg size had no effect on the timing of emergence but fry of different egg size emerged synchronously. Fry from large eggs left the gravel as heavier fry and with a larger proportion of yolk left compared to fry from small eggs. (3) The number of days and number of degree days from hatching to 50% emergence decreased exponentially with increasing temperature. Synchronization of emergence increased with increasing temperature. Fry emerged with more yolk at 12 °C compared to 6 °C. (4) Eggs kept in a LD 16:8 light regime hatched mainly during the light period, while eggs kept in constant darkness hatched continously over a 24 hour period. Alevins kept at different light regimes (light&gt;4h) from hatching until emergence left the gravel during the dark period. Daylength had no effect on the annual onset of emergence. (5) In a laboratory stream channel, predator presence at emergence increased mortality especially in early emerging fry. If the predator was introduced after completed emergence high mortality was noted among late emerging fry. The presence of fish predators and a limited territorial space for fry seemed to make early and late emergence hazardous and to favour a "peak" emergence. In the presence of a predator the fry changed their behaviour by reducing their swimming activity. / digitalisering@umu.se

Förvaltning av lax är en komplicerad uppgift som kräver stor förståelse för både laxen och de antropogena effekter som påverkar den. Vattenkraftverk har stor påverkan på laxen genom oregelbundna flöden, reducerad vattenföring och barriärer i vandringsvägar. Laxen är beroende av att vandra för att optimera tillväxt, överlevnad och reproduktion. Östersjöns laxbestånd minskade kraftigt mellan 1950- och 1980-talet till följd av dammutbyggnad och överfiske. Redan i början av 1900-talet började det lokala laxbeståndet i älven Ljusnan att sjunka av samma orsaker. Idag finns ingen lax kvar i Ljusnan. För att möjliggöra en återintroduktion av lax krävs möjlighet för vandring och tillgång på reproduktionshabitat. Bollnäsströmmarna bedöms med sina 6,6 km historiskt ha stått för 25 % av hela Ljusnans laxproduktion. Syftet med denna studie var att simulera en återintroduktion av lax i Bollnäsströmmarna och att genom sårbarhetsanalys undersöka om utplantering av romkorn kan resultera i en överlevande laxpopulation. Simuleringarna utfördes med dagens förutsättningar med undantag av att de passagefria kraftverken ersattes med passagelösningar av bästa möjliga teknik. Utöver detta undersöktes effekter av ökad passagedödlighet förbi kraftverken, habitatåterställande åtgärder och utökade supplementära utsättningar av romkorn. Sammanlagt nio sårbarhetsanalyser utfördes i simuleringsprogrammet Vortex. Resultatet av studien visar att utplantering av romkorn kan producera en laxpopulation som överlever under en hundraårsperiod. Efter en initial populationsökning under tio år sjunker dock tillväxten konstant resterande nittio år vilket med största sannolikhet hade resulterat i en utdöd population över en större tidsrymd. Den potentiella laxpopulationen var mycket känslig för ökad passagedödlighet med en hög utdöenderisk efter endast en liten ökning. Både habitatåterställande åtgärder och supplementära utsättningar av rom gav positiva effekter på populationsstorleken men inget scenario lyckades producera ett stabilt och livskraftigt bestånd vilket tyder på att fler åtgärder krävs för ett lyckat återintroduktionsprojekt. / Conservation of salmon is a complicated task that requires understanding both the biology of salmon and the anthropogenic impacts affecting it. Atlantic salmon is dependent on its migration to optimize growth, survival and reproduction. Hydropower plants affect salmon by causing highly irregular flows, reduced discharge and barriers along migration routes. The salmon stocks of the Baltic Sea declined considerably between the 1950s and 1980s as a result of dam development and overfishing. For the same reasons the local salmon stock in the River Ljusnan, Sweden began to decline already in the early 1900s, and today there are no salmon left in the River Ljusnan. To restore the population, actions to mediate migration and access to reproduction habitats and rearing habitats are needed. The 6.6 km long river section, “Bollnäsströmmarna”, is estimated to have accounted for 25 % of the total salmon production in the River Ljusnan. The aim of this study was to simulate a reintroduction of Atlantic salmon in Bollnäsströmmarna, and using a population viability analysis (PVA), investigate if stocking of eggs can result in a viable salmon population. Simulations were made on the basis of today’s conditions, with the condition that best practice passage solutions are implemented. In addition, the effects of increased passage mortality, habitat restoration and increased supplementary stocking of eggs were simulated. A total of nine PVA simulation (n= 100) scenarios were performed in the Vortex simulation program. The results of the study show that stocking of eggs can produce a salmon population that has a minimum extinction risk over a one-hundred year period. However, after an initial population increase over ten years, population growth steadily declines for the remaining ninety years, which most likely would result in extinction if a period longer than 100 years was considered. The salmon population was very sensitive to an increase in passage mortality, with a high extinction risk after only a small increase in mortality. Both habitat restoration and increased supplementary stocking impacted the population size positively, but no scenario produced a stable and viable population, which indicates that more measures are required for a successful long-term reintroduction.

Environmental pollution by pharmaceuticals is an issue of concern that is currently attracting attention around the world. Although environmental effects of pharmaceutical contaminants are not yet well documented, studies have shown that these substances may have the potential to disrupt the biotic component of an ecosystem. Particularly worrisome contaminants are the neuroactive pharmaceuticals which have the potentiality to induce behavioral modifications in non-target species. In the present study, I examined the effects of a benzodiazepine anxiolytic pharmaceutical (oxazepam) on the behavior of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) juveniles (fry). The hypothesis of this study was that oxazepam reduces the anxiety-like behavior of the Atlantic salmon juveniles. To test the hypothesis and assess the impact of oxazepam exposure on Atlantic salmons fry behavior, two different concentrations of this drug; a low-level (1.9 ug L-1) and a high-level concentration (1000 ug L-1) were used. Exposures lasted for 48 hours and afterwards, the fish were recorded to evaluate their behavioral responses. The results of this study reveal that oxazepam in a high concentration (1000 ug L-1 ) alters specific behavioral endpoints related to the fitness (feeding/predator avoidance) of Atlantic salmons fry. Individuals exposed to the high oxazepam concentration exhibited significant lower average speed and acceleration as well as they traveled a shorter mean distance compared to the unexposed (control) individuals. These findings confirm the hypothesis and show that psychotropic pharmaceutical contaminants modify animal behaviors, which can ultimately lead to ecological consequences. However, the concentration that generated behavioral effects in this study was three magnitudes higher than concentrations measured in the environment and thus, should not be viewed representative for oxazepam contaminated ecosystems.

Co-evolution between parasites and their hosts result in extremely well-orchestrated and intimate relationships that are characterized by remarkable adaptations in the attack response of the parasite and the defense response of the host. To fully understand host-parasite interactions, these adaptations must be considered in the context of the ecological constraints in which they evolved. As a serious pest to salmon mariculture, Lepeophtheirus salmonis has been extensively studied; however, there are still several areas that require further research. Of utmost importance, and the topic of this thesis, is molecular basis for resistance to sea lice. The following chapters investigate this phenomena under the umbrella of ecological immunology using combined modern technologies of transcriptomics, proteomics and functional immunology with a focus on the primary interaction site. In the first chapter, I describe the key players involved in this host-parasite relationship with a focus on the primary interaction site, the louse-salmon interface, where there are responses by the louse (attack) and the salmon host (defense). Previous research indicated that an early aggressive inflammatory response at the louse-skin interface contributes to resistance in coho salmon; however, there are no data characterizing a site-specific response in resistant (pink and coho) and susceptible (Atlantic, chum) species. Accordingly in Chapter 2, I define site-specific cutaneous responses in Atlantic, pink and chum salmon to establish genetic biomarkers of resistance. Chapter 3 focuses on identification of cellular effectors using histochemical localization of biomarkers to characterize cellular populations activated at the louse-attachment site, while broadening the gene targets. Our notion of pink salmon as a resistant species is challenged by the common observation of migrating pink salmon supporting large populations of L. salmonis in the field. Thus the purpose of chapter 4 was to investigate potential mechanisms to explain variations in susceptibility as a function of life history. Host-parasite relationships are a product of both host and parasite responses; therefore, in chapters 5 and 6, I shift focus to the level of the parasite. In chapter 5 I present the first documented large-scale transcriptomic profiling of L. salmonis during feeding on both resistant (coho) and susceptible (Atlantic, sockeye) salmon. This was followed (chapter 6) by describing the proteomic profile of L. salmonis secretions after feeding on Atlantic salmon. In the seventh and final chapter, I present my conclusions on the molecular mechanisms for resistance to sea lice and discuss potential applications of this information for future louse control strategies. / Graduate

Photoperiod manipulations are widely used throughout the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) farming industry as a means of producing a product of uniform quality all-year round. However, farmers still remain sceptical over their effectiveness to regulate growth and maturation during the on-growing stage. Furthermore, reports of a characteristic growth-dip following light exposure suggest that light may negatively affect the physiological performance of fish in the short-term. Thus, this thesis investigates the effects of light characteristics (spectral quality, intensity and photoperiod) on growth and maturation of salmonid fish and addresses some of the uncertainties surrounding photoperiod use currently reported within the industry. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are seemingly an ideal model species for examining photoperiod effects on growth. Consequently, the application of constant light exposure (LL) at two different intensities (28W and 16W) during two different thermal conditions (summer and winter) was examined on individually tagged fish. Feed intake and growth appeared to be related to the ambient water temperature and did not appear to be affected by intensity or photoperiod, although the onset of constant light did appear to initially affect growth rate. This may indicate that LL has a limiting effect on the growth of trout or that the prevailing water temperature at which light is applied may override the photoperiodic effect. Furthermore, the lack of enhanced growth in trout exposed to LL, unlike that demonstrated for other salmonids, suggest that there may be a species-specific response to environmental variables. Thus, questions regarding photoperiod effects should be limited to the species in question. The main source of variation in results observed under photoperiod manipulations stems from the salmon industry. Atlantic salmon post-smolts were reared in seawater tanks and either maintained under a natural photoperiod (NP) or exposed to a simulated natural photoperiod (SNP), constant light superimposed on the natural light (NPLL) or constant light only (LL). Artificial light onset, irrespective of photoperiod, resulted in an apparent trend for a reduced appetite lasting up to 60 days. Furthermore, the onset of constant light resulted in a significant chronic elevation of plasma cortisol levels and changes to growth and thyroid hormone levels, providing direct evidence that constant light exposure induces stress. In addition, fish exposed to SNP failed to exhibit a stress response despite a low feed intake. However, differences in the plasma melatonin levels during twilight times, as compared to NP, suggest that gradual changes in the natural light intensity throughout the day, particularly around dawn and dusk, may be important for synchronizing daily events. No differences in growth were observed between the NP and NPLL regimes, although fish reared in an enclosed regime (SNP and LL) exhibited a significantly lower weight gain than fish in an open environment (NP and NPLL). This further highlights the impact that the rearing environment has on the growth performances of fish and the need for commercially run trials. Advances in lighting technologies and a greater understanding of how light is transformed through the water column have focussed research on the spectral sensitivity of fish. Therefore the lighting efficiency of novel blue narrow bandwidth LED lighting units through the water column and their effects on growth and maturation performances of salmon reared in commercial production cages were compared against the standard metal halide units currently utilized throughout the industry. LL application, irrespective of intensity or spectrum, reduced the numbers of fish maturing as compared to fish reared under a natural photoperiod. However, this was greatest under the standard metal halide units reflecting a greater light penetration and perception as determined by plasma melatonin levels. The metal halide groups exhibited the greatest relative weight gain over the trial period as compared to control fish. No evidence was observed for a growth-dip under metal halide light, although blue lit treatments exhibited an initial significant reduction in food consumption, suggesting a possible welfare issue. Nevertheless, the prototype blue LED units showed possible potential for commercial application by penetrating the water depth at half the distance of the metal halide units for only one eighth the power and one fifth the brightness. However, further tests of these prototype spectral units are required to examine the potential welfare and physiological growth and reproductive effects. These studies have shown that the efficacy of artificial light regimes is largely dependent upon the effectiveness of the light source through the underwater environment and its perception by fish, providing a sufficient intensity is emitted exceeding the physiological threshold level for the species cultured. Moreover, whilst the onset of artificial light may elicit a stress response and demonstrate a trend for a suppression of appetite for salmon reared in experimental tanks, no compelling evidence for a suppression of appetite or growth was found under normal commercial cage conditions. This suggests that the growth-dip observed within the industry may in part be a combination of a physiological response to the onset of light further exaggerated by the farmer’s perception and altered judgement in feeding. In addition, the results obtained from this study have helped to standardize the use of light regimes within the industry. Nevertheless, further studies are necessary to fully elucidate the underlying mechanisms which may govern growth and maturation in fish following the onset of light exposure.