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Early plastic shrinkage cracking of concrete is an important factor affecting the durability of modern concrete structures. Early cracking (within 24 hours after pouring) may become a problem for any concrete structure. It will promote the entry of harmful materials, destroy the beauty of concrete members, and reduce their durability and performance. In addition, due to long-term shrinkage and/or load, these cracks may gradually expand in the service life of components. Scientific research and engineering technicians often have to face the difficulties caused by early plastic shrinkage cracking of concrete. From the aspects of shrinkage mechanism, measurement method, prediction model and strength development, this paper reviews the scientific and technological status of plastic shrinkage and strength development of early-age concrete, and based on this, summarizes the important conclusions in existing research and establishes the relevant concrete strength prediction model.:1 Introduction 2. Shrinkage in concrete 2.1 Classification and mechanism of concrete shrinkage 2.2 Main factors causing concrete shrinkage 2.3 Concluding remarks 3. Plastic shrinkage in early age concrete 3.1 Method for determining the time of initial and final setting 3.2 Mechanism of plastic shrinkage 3.3 Evaporation 3.4 Capillary pressure 3.5 Main factors affecting plastic shrinkage cracking 3.6 Concluding remarks 4. Different methods for determining the resistance to plastic shrinkage cracking 4.1 Rectangular mould test setup 4.2 ASTM C 1579 4.3 Ring test method (NT BUILD 433) 4.4 Capillary pressure test 5. Development of early age strength of concrete 5.1 Mechanical properties 5.1.1 Compressive strength 5.1.2 Tensile strength 5.1.3 Early-age shrinkage of concrete 5.2 Test and prediction model evaluation 6. Test and quantitative model 6.1 pullout tests on early-age concrete 6.1.1 Tests principle 6.1.2 test result 6.2 Compilation of existing pullout capacity prediction models 6.2.1 Strength and pullout force model based on 𝒉𝒆𝒇 6.2.2 Strength and pullout force model based on 𝒉𝒆𝒇 and ∅𝒉 6.2.3 Tensile strength and pullout force model 6.3 Application of existing prediction model in early age concrete 7. Conclusions 8. Literature

Over the past fifty years, many states have recognized the benefits of making precast, prestressed multi-girder bridges continuous by connecting the girders with a continuity diaphragm. Although there is widespread agreement on the benefits of continuous construction, there has not been as much agreement on either the methods used for design of these systems or the details used for the continuity connections. To aid designers in choosing the most appropriate method, an analytical and experimental study was undertaken at Virginia Tech. Analyses were done to compare the differences in the predicted continuity moments for different design methods and assumptions over a range of commonly used systems of Precast Concrete Bulb Tee (PCBT) girders and cast-in-place slabs. The results of the analyses were used to develop three continuity connection details for testing during the experimental study. Three different continuity connections were tested using full depth PCBT 45 in. deep girders made continuous with a 6 ft wide slab. The bottom of the ends of the girders were made continuous with the continuity connection by extending prestressing strands for one test and extending 180 degree bent bars for the other test. Both connections adequately resisted service, cyclic, and ultimate loads. But, the test with the extended bars remained stiffer during cyclic loading and is recommended for use. A third test was performed on a system using only a slab cast across the top of the girders. Two primary cracks formed above the ends of the girders at the joint during service testing, after which no significant increase in damage took place. Results from the analytical study indicate that the predicted positive thermal restraint moments may be significant, similar in magnitude to the actual positive cracking moment capacities. Results from the experimental study indicate that restraint moments develop early due to thermal expansion of the deck during curing and subsequent differential shrinkage; however, the magnitudes of the early age restraint moments are much less than conventional analyses predict. / Ph. D.

Concrete undergoes volumetric changes throughout its service life. These changes are a result of applied loads and shrinkage. Applied loads result in an instantaneous recoverable elastic deformation and a slow, time dependent, inelastic deformation called creep. Creep without moisture loss is referred to as basic creep and with moisture loss is referred to as drying creep. Shrinkage is the combination of autogeneous, drying, and carbonation shrinkage. The combination of creep, shrinkage, and elastic deformation is referred to as total strain. The prestressed concrete beams in the Chickahominy River Bridge have been fabricated with a lightweight, high strength concrete mixture (LTHSC). Laboratory test specimens have been cast using the concrete materials and mixture proportions used in the fabrication of the bridge beams. Two standard cure and two match cure batches have been loaded for 329 and 251 days, respectively. Prestress losses are generally calculated with the total strain predicted by the American Concrete Institute Committee 209 recommendations, ACI 209, or the European design code, CEB Model Code 90. Two additional models that have been proposed are the B3 model by Bazant and Baweja, and the GL2000 model proposed by Gardner and Lockman. The four models are analyzed to determine the most precise model for the LTHSC mixture. Only ACI 209 considered lightweight aggregates during model development. GL2000 considers aggregate stiffness in the model. ACI 209 was the best predictor of total strain and individual time dependent deformations for the accelerated cure specimens. CEB Mode Code 90 was the best predictor of total strain for the standard cure specimens. The best overall predictor of time dependent deformations was the GL2000 model for the standard cure specimens. / Master of Science

In the precast construction market, the competitive situation is significantly affected by price, cost, productivity, and quality factors. Since self-consolidating concrete (SCC) was first introduced to the concrete industry in the late 1980s, it has been used worldwide in variety of applications. Despite the documented technical and economic advantages of SCC in precast, prestressed applications, the use of SCC has been limited in some countries due to some technical uncertainties of such innovative material. To explore some unsolved issues related to SCC and to contribute to a wider acceptance of SCC in precast, prestressed applications, this study was undertaken to assess the effect of mixture proportioning and material characteristics on the performance of SCC and recommend performance-based specifications for use of SCC in the precast, prestressed applications. The thesis presents an experimental program that contains four parts: (1) a parametric study to evaluate the influence of binder type, w/cm, coarse aggregate type, and coarse aggregate nominal size on the modulus of elasticity and compressive strength developments; (2) a parametric study to evaluate the effect of mixture proportioning and material characteristics on fresh and hardened properties of SCC; (3) a fractional factorial design to identify the relative significance of primary mixture parameters and their coupled effects on SCC properties; and (4) a field validation using full-scale AASHTO Type II girders cast to investigate constructability, material properties, and structural performance (the latter part was carried out by the research team of Professor Denis Mitchell at McGill University). Based on the experimental test results, SCC exhibits similar compressive strength and modulus of elasticity to that of conventional high-performance concrete (HPC) of normal slump consistency. SCC and HPC mixtures made of a given binder type exhibit similar autogenous shrinkage. However, SCC exhibits up to 30% and 20% higher drying shrinkage and creep, respectively, at 300 days compared to HPC made with similar w/cm but different paste volume. The results of the experiment program show that among the investigated material constituents and mix design parameters, the w/cm has the most significant effect on mechanical and visco-elastic properties. The binder content, binder type, and sand-to-total aggregate ratio (S/A) also have considerable effect on those properties. The thickening-type viscosity modifying admixture (VMA) content (0 to 150 ml/100 kg CM) does not significantly affect mechanical and visco-elastic properties. Based on the findings, some mixture parameters regarding the overall performance of SCC designated for precast and prestressed applications can be recommended: SCC made with relatively low w/cm (such as 0.34 vs. 0.40) should be selected to ensure desirable compressive strength, modulus of elasticity (MOE), flexural strength, as well as less drying shrinkage and creep; the use of crushed aggregate with 12.5 mm MSA is suggested since it provides better mechanical properties of SCC compared to gravel; the use of low S/A (such as 0.46 vs. 0.54) to secure adequate mechanical and visco-elastic properties is recommended; the use of thickening-type VMA can help to secure robustness and stability of the concrete in the case of SCC proportioned with moderate and relatively high w/cm; and the use of Type MS cement can lead to lower creep and shrinkage than Type HE cement and 20% Class F fly ash. However, SCC mixtures made with Type HE cement and 20% Class F fly ash can result in better workability and mechanical properties. Therefore, it is recommended to use Type HE cement and 20% Class F fly ash and reduce binder content (such as 440 kg/m[exposant 3] vs. 500 kg/m[exposant 3]) to assure better overall performance of SCC. Validation on full-scale AASHTO-Type II girders using two HPC and two SCC mixtures show that girders casting with SCC can be successfully carried out without segregation and blocking for the selected optimized mixtures. The surface quality of the girders cast with SCC is quite satisfactory and of greater uniformity than girders cast with HPC. Both HPC and SCC mixtures develop similar autogenous shrinkage for mixtures made with similar w/cm. Again, the two evaluated SCC mixtures develop about 20% greater drying shrinkage than comparable HPC mixtures. Modifications of existing models to assess mechanical and visco-elastic properties of SCC used in the precast, prestressed applications are proposed. Based on the comparisons of various code provisions, the ACI 209 and CEB-FIP codes with suggested material coefficients can be recommended to estimate compressive strength. The modified AASHTO 2007 model can be used for predicting the elastic modulus and flexural strength. The AASHTO 2004 and 2007 models with suggested material coefficients can be used to estimate drying shrinkage and creep, respectively. The CEB-FIP 90 code model can be used to predict both drying shrinkage and creep. Finally, the modified Tazawa and Miyazawa 1997 model with material modifications can be used to estimate autogenous shrinkage of SCC.

Cracked pavement slabs lead to uncomfortable and eventual unsafe driving conditions for motorists. Replacement of cracked pavement slabs can interrupt traffic flow in the form of lane closures. In Florida, the traffic demands are high and pavement repairs need to be carried out swiftly typically using concrete with high cement contents and accelerators to create rapid setting and strength gain. The concrete used in these pavement replacements is usually accompanied by a high temperature rise, making the replaced slabs susceptible to cracking. Cracking is a result of developed tensile stresses in the concrete, which exceed the concrete's tensile strength capacity. This research is being conducted to determine the risk of cracking for pavement slabs with varying dosages of chloride based accelerator used to promote high early strength. To analyze the effect of the accelerator, five different concrete mixtures including a control were assessed in a series of tests with varying accelerator dosages. Experiments included: mortar cube testing, concrete cylinder testing, autogenous deformation measured with a free-shrinkage frame, and restrained stress analysis using a rigid cracking frame. The findings indicate that accelerators are necessary to meet the strength requirements, and that the higher the accelerator dose, the higher the early shrinkage in the first 24 hours determined from the free shrinkage frame. Accidental overdose of the chloride-based accelerator results in the highest cracking potential and the highest shrinkage when tested under field generated temperature profiles.

The industrial concrete floor is a very important part of an industrial building, distribution center, storage or shopping mall, and it must have high quality surfaces for operation. To achieve the high quality we must know the problems and how to treat them. The most important problems on the concrete floors are: (i) cracks which are caused by shrinkage and creep, (ii) curling resulting in a loss of contact between concrete slab and sub-base, and (iii) unevenness In this thesis, it is aimed to investigate the effect of optimizing the concrete mix with and without additional shrinkage reducing agents (SRA) to reduce the crack risk in industrial concrete floors. Four types of concrete recipes are used (A-D) which include a recipe with optimized mix design for minimum shrinkage, a reference recipe (standard mix), an optimized mix with SRA and a fourth recipe with the reference plus SRA. The testing program extended to 224 days of age and comprised e.g. free-shrinkage, restrained shrinkage, weight change, modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and creep of concrete. At early ages, a 28 days, there are large differences in shrinkage-time relations for different mixes. Later than 28 days, the relations are closer. A comparison among shrinkage and creep test results of four recipes shows that recipes A and C have greater crack risk than recipes B and D. The recipe D has also the best result in restrained shrinkage test. These results are because of the aggrega-te graduation, type of cement and shrinkage reducing agents which all have a direct influence on the concrete properties. These tests were done by CBI (The Swedish Cement and Concrete Research Institute) during 2009.

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Corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete is a significant problem around the world. In the United States, there are approximately 600,000 bridges. From those bridges 24% are considered structurally deficient or functionally obsolete based on the latest, December 2010, statistic from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Mainly, this is due to chloride attack present in deicing salts which causes the reinforcing steel to corrode. Different solutions have been developed and used in practice to delay and prevent corrosion initiation. The purpose of this research is to investigate the influence of corrosion on the failure mechanism that occurred on an Interstate 81 bridge deck. After 17 years in service, a 3ft x3ft closure pour section punched through. It was part of the left wheel path of the south bound right lane of the bridge deck. The bridge deck was replaced in 1992 as part of a bridge rehabilitation project, epoxy coated reinforcement were used as the reinforcing steel. Four slabs from the bridge deck, containing the closure, were removed and transported to the Virginia Tech Structures and Materials Research Laboratory for further evaluation. Also, three lab cast slabs were fabricated as part of the assessment program. Corrosion evaluation and concrete shrinkage characterization were conducted in this research. The corrosion evaluation study included visual observation, clear concrete cover depth, concrete resistivity using single point resistivity, half-cell potential, and linear polarization using the 3LP device. Shrinkage characteristics were conducted on the lab cast slabs only, which consisted of monitoring shrinkage behavior of the specimens for 180 days and comparison of the data with five different shrinkage models. Based on the research results, guidance for assessment of other bridge decks with similar conditions will be constructed to avoid similar types of failures in the future. / Master of Science