Boston University. University Professors Program Senior theses. / PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / 2031-01-02

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Boston University. / The purpose of this dissertation is to trace the development of the Southern Illinois Conference of The Methodist Church. The primary sources for the study were The Minutes of the Annual Conferences, The Minutes of the Illinois Conference, and the Journal of the Southern Illinois Conference. Secondary sources had to be used for much of the early history. Methodism began in England and was brought to America by Wesley's preachers. Francis Asbury supervised the spread of Methodism from the Eastern seaboard into the Ohio River Valley [TRUNCATED]

The Southern Ocean (SO) is a critical component in the global ocean conveyor. As the only conduit linking the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, as well as an important region of upwelling and water mass formation, it is thought to have played a key role in modulating Earth’s past climate. Changes in the circulation of SO deep and bottom waters over the last 1.5 million years are investigated using stable carbon isotope $δ^{13}C$ measurements made on the tests of the benthic foraminfer Cibicidoides ($δ^{13}C_{b}$), and the rare earth element concentrations and Neodymium isotope ($ɛ_{Nd}$) values of marine sediments and their authigenic ferromanganese coatings. Being a proxy for past seawater nutrient contents, $δ^{13}C_{b}$ provides important insights into both past ocean circulation and the potential storage of remineralised organic carbon within the deep ocean, while simultaneously providing information on the past ventilation state of the deep ocean interior. As seawater $ɛ_{Nd}$ remains unaffected by biological fractionation or air-sea exchange processes, reconstructions of past deep and bottom water $ɛ_{Nd}$ provides a tool with which to study past changes in the circulation and mixing of these water masses. A suite of previously published late Holocene (0-6 ka) and Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 18-24 ka) $δ^{13}C_{b}$ data are used alongside newly acquired $δ^{13}C_{b}$ data from the Amundsen Sea in the eastern Pacific sector of the SO to investigate past changes in the pattern of circum-Antarctic seawater carbon isotope composition. The $δ^{13}C$ signature of deep and bottom waters was much more heterogenous during the LGM than the late Holocene, with negative $δ^{13}C$ excursions occurring within the Atlantic and Indian sectors of the SO below c. 2-3 km water depth. Some of this negative $δ^{13}C$ signal was advected through the SO to the Pacific sector, but this appears to have been restricted by bathymetric barriers within the SO. New $δ^{13}C_{b}$ data spanning the last 800 ka from the Amundsen Sea are presented and suggest differing modes of bottom water formation in the Atlantic vs Pacific sectors of the SO during glacial periods of the last 800 ka. An authigenic $ɛ_{Nd}$ record measured on sediments from a core located in the deep Indian Ocean is used to investigate the palaeocirculation history of modified Circumpolar Deep Water (mCDW) within the Indian Ocean during the last 1.5 million years. Shifts towards more radiogenic $ɛ_{Nd}$ values during glacial periods are interpreted as reflecting a decreased entrainment of deep waters sourced in the North Atlantic (Northern Component Water, NCW) within CDW, which led to a reduced advection of an unradiogenic $ɛ_{Nd}$ NCW signal to the core site. $ɛ_{Nd}$ and REE measurements made on sediments from two cores located on the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge in the western Pacific sector of the SO (to the north of the Ross Sea Embayment) are used to reconstruct the bottom water palaeocirculation in this region across the last 540 ka. The proportion and $ɛ_{Nd}$ signature of Ross Sea Bottom Water (RSBW) bathing these core sites has fluctuated throughout the last 540 ka. These fluctuations suggest the rate and location of bottom water formation within the Ross Sea, and the supply of terrigenous material with radiogenic $ɛ_{Nd}$ values with which to isotopically `labelled' RSBW, may have changed in the past.

Although grindstones - that is, pairs of stone implements used to grind, pound, pulverise or otherwise process intermediate materials - have been intensively studied by archaeologists in other parts of the world, in southern Africa to date they have received little attention. Despite a near-ubiquitous presence on Middle and Later Stone Age archaeological sites, their primary function in archaeological reconstructions has been as proxies for other behaviours. These include behavioural modernity; gender; particular plant types, such as geophytes/underground storage organs. This doctoral thesis interrogates grindstones with a view not only to establishing specific (rather than proxy) uses in the southern African archaeological record,but also as a means to explore the gathered side of hunter-gatherer lifeways, which have also historically been neglected. It does this by developing a methodological toolkit for grindstone analysis in southern Africa. Comparison of archaeological and historical literature from the southern African Grassland Biome and elsewhere suggests a tension between archaeological accounts which posit geophyte and mineral pigment grinding as a primary purpose for grindstones and ethnohistorical accounts suggesting that grass-processing was a staple of hunter-gatherer life. Finally, a corpus of putative grindstones from the site of Ha Makotoko in western Lesotho is typologically assessed and analysed for plant starches and phytoliths. It emerges that at this site, and in contrast to received wisdom, geophyte grinding was not extensive but by contrast, grass seed processing was practised. This belies models suggesting that C4 grass seeds were unlikely to have contributed to hunter-gatherer diets, and questions interpretations of grass 'bedding' as well as the distinction between 'forager' and 'farmer'. Most importantly, this thesis validates the idea that grindstone study is worthwhile, and should be integrated into wider lithic study in southern Africa as a matter of course.

This thesis is concerned with the earthwork and timber castles built in the southern March of Wales between the periods AD 1050-1250. The research addresses the presence of the castles and discusses their roles as weapons of conquest and structures of administrative control. It is argued that the recognisable change in the form of earthwork castle construction over the 200 year period can be seen as a consequence of changing functions. Although it has not been possible to demonstrate how the area within a castle was used, it has been possible to identify a difference in the degree of defence verses habitation space associated with these structures. A system of classification is introduced which relies on the tenet of "form follows function" whereby all of the known earthworks are interpreted as to type and date; the date periods being generalised into the 11 th, 12th and 13 th centuries. The information for the classification is derived from a variety of sources; documentary evidence, fieldwork, aerial photography, topographical survey, geophysical survey, and limited excavation. The surveys and excavations that are included are original work undertaken for this study. Discussion has also been undertaken as to the social structures in the March both prior to the Norman Conquest and after the arrival of the Normans. Research is also presented with a view to questioning both the origin of the castle and the definition of the term. The research uses a certain amount of data from outside of the area including Normandy. The outcome of the research presents an interpretation of the Norman Conquest of theSouthern March of Wales.

Although the history of South Arabia in the fifth and sixth centuries has not been studied to any great extent, the events of this period were of marked importance in the history of South Arabia in particular and of Central Arabia in general. Within this period we find the enlargement of the South Arabian kings' title, and the extension of their sovereignty over the highland of West and Central Arabia; the Abyssinian invasion of South Arabia and the semi-independent government of Abraha and his sons; and, finally, the abolition of South Arabian independence after the Persian invasion. South Arabia lost its position as the leading power in the Arabian peninsula said became a vassal province of the Persian empire. Moreover, the decline of Kinda and its migration to South Arabia created instability in Central Arabia, and indeed most of ayyām al-'arab [Days of the Arab] which we know, belongs to the period after the decline of Kinda, the vassal of South Arabia. The aim of the present work is to study this period of the history of South Arabia from the time of Abū Karib As'sad, who had the title "King of sb'/wdrydn/wḥḍrmwt/wymnt/w'rb/ṭwd/wthmt." 1. Chapter I deals with the relations of South and Central Arabia before the reign of Abū Karib As'sad; the extension of South Arabia towards the north; the eventual conquest of Kinda; the expedition of Sharafddin's Inscription towards the land of Tanūkh and Persia, at the time of Shammar Yuhar'ish; and finally the counter-attack of Shapur II, King of Persia and Imru'l-Kais. 2. Chapter II treats of the reign of Abū Karib As'sad; the enlarged title, ''rb, twd and thmt; Abū Karib in Central Arabia; the legends of Abū Karib's invasion of Irak and Central Asia, the siege of Madina, and finally his worshipping at the Ka'ba in Mecca. 3. Chapter III deals with the traditional kings after Abū Karib who have been mentioned in the inscriptions, with special reference to Hassan's expedition against Diadis, 'Abd Kulal in Arab tradition, and Ma'dikarib Ya'fur in Central Arabia. 4. Chapter IV covers the reign of the famous king Yūsuf 'As'ar, his origin, and the massacre of the Christians in South Arabia. 5. Chapter V is concerned with the Abyssinian invasion of South Arabia, the battlefield, the period of the puppet king Sumyafa Ashwa, and his end at the hand of the famous King Abraha. 6. Chapter VI deals with the most significant achievements of Abrah; the events of CIH 541; the events of Ry 506; the expedition of Ry 506 and its relation to the expedition of the elephant; the reign of Abraha's sons, Yaksūm and Masrūk; and finally the end of the Abyssinian domination of South Arabia.

A brief review of the various models proposed to account for the Bushveld Complex shows that there are two main hypotheses. These are the Multiple Intrusion hypothesis and the In Situ Crystallization hypothesis. The latter also allows for multiple additions to the crystallizing magma, and several variants involving the number of these inputs , their composition, volume and timing have been proposed. To facilitate description and investigation of the study section, the stratigraphic nomenclature of this part of the Rustenberg Layered Suite is revised and clarified. It is proposed that the boundary between the Critical Zone and Main Zone be placed at the base of the Merensky cyclic unit, and thus the whole of the Merensky and Bastard cyclic units are included in the Main Zone. Furthermore, the extremely confused terminology for smaller units within the Merensky and Bastard cyclic units is resolved by discarding the term Reef as a formal term and substituting lithological terms such as Merensky pegmatoid, Merensky pyroxenite, Bastard pyroxenite and Merensky mottled anorthosite etc. It is recommended that the term Reef be retained as an informal term to designate the mineralized horizon which may be mined, regardless of lithology. The term "pegmatoid" is restricted to stratiform or lensoid masses of coarse grained feldspathic pyroxenite or harzburgite which are part of the layered sequence. The transgressive vertical pipe-like, coarse-grained ultramafic "iron-rich bodies are termed "ultramafic pegmatites ". The main features of the Merensky and Bastard cyclic units are the regular chemical and mineralogical changes that occur with respect to stratigraphic height in these units. In the Merensky cyclic unit there is a smooth iron enrichment in the orthopyroxenes upward in the succession and a transition from pyroxenite at the base to mottled anorthosite at the top of the unit. The Bastard cyclic unit is broadly similar to the Merensky cyclic unit. A variety of textures and chemical features are in disequilibrium in some samples but not in others, and great complexity is evident wh en individual samples are studied in detail. The initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of plagioclase separates and whole rocks from the study section show a distinct step-like increase in the Merensky cyclic unit to .70806 at the base of the, Merensky cyclic unit to .70806 at the base of the Bastard cyclic unit. In contrast , samples from below the Merensky cyclic unit have a constant initial Sr-isotopic ratio, as do the samples from the Bastard cyclic unit. These isotopic and chemical data, and available published geologic relationships suggest that a major new influx of basic magma occurred after the Footwall unit was deposited and that this mixed with the residual magma in the chamber and then precipitated the Merensky and Bastard cyclic units. The crystal settling theory as outlined by Wager and Brown (1968) fails to account for the chemical and stratigraphic variations observed in the study section. The theory of bottom crystallization, initially proposed by Jackson (1961), more adequately explains the features observed. Applying a model outlined by Irvine (1980a & b), it has been established from chemical data, that the Merensky cyclic unit crystallized from a magma layer with a thickness roughly equivalent to the average thickness of the cyclic unit itself (±10m). A similar exercise on the Bastard unit was not possible. The formation of the Footwall unit is still enigmatic. Infiltration metasomatism and sintering can modify the petrographic and chemical characteristics of rocks and minerals after deposition at the liquidus stage. During the solidification of the crystal mush a separate vapour phase may form in the crystal mush, which could move up through the crystal pile. This process may ultimately be responsible for the generation of potholes and pegmatoidal horizons, such as the Merensky pegmatoid. The upward increase in the initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio within the Merensky cyclic unit is strong evidence that infiltration metasomatism has played an important part in the generation of the Merensky cyclic unit. This process, coupled with fluid enrichment, may also result in the formation of pegmatoid layers. Sintering appears to have been a common process in the mottled anorthosites of the study section and may have severely reduced the amount of trapped interstitial liquid in these rocks.

Throughout the Central Hardwoods, fire return interval dramatically increased during the period of Euro-American settlement. Fire was used as a tool for clearing land and improving forage for grazing. The Shoal Creek study site is located in Jackson County, Illinois, 8 km southwest of Murphysboro. Shoal Creek is situated at the northern extent of the Illinois Ozark Hills, classified as a Subsection of the Ozark Highlands Section. The region is unglaciated and loess caps are 10 m deep on the ridgetops and 1-3 m deep on side slopes. Results show the site was frequently burned (MFI=2.95) from 1887 to 1946 during post-settlement. Fire waned from the site in the 1930's and the last major fire occurred in 1946. By this time, Shawnee National Forest had become established in southern Illinois and fire suppression was the preferred management technique. Thirty three fire scarred Quercus-Carya cross sections were opportunistically sampled from a southwest aspect. Cross sections were sanded to 600 grit and skeleton plots were used to determine signature years for cross-dating purposes. Year and seasonality of individual fire scars, and approximate pith date were determined for each sample to be utilized in FHX2. Recruitment history revealed that overstory oak-hickory species established under favorable conditions in the early 20th century. Timber was harvested from the site around 1900 and intense fires followed for the next 30 yrs. A small pulse of Acer-Fagus germinated as fire frequency decreased on-site during the 1930's and a significant pulse established immediately after the last recorded fire in 1946. Superposed epoch analysis (SEA) determines the influence of immediate weather patterns and overall climate trends surrounding fire event years. SEA was run to compare fire event years at Shoal Creek with PDSI climate reconstructions. For the 95% confidence interval, there was not a significant association between fire and climate. In the Central Hardwoods, lightning is associated with rainstorms and fires burn in both dry years and wet years so the relationship between fire and climate is not strong. The Shoal Creek study site will be compared with the Sugar Creek study site (located in the Shawnee Hills) to see if similarities in the historical fire regime and recruitment exist between the two physiographic provinces. If rehabilitation of oak-hickory dominated forest stands is the management objective, the results of this study will aid in fire cycle planning of frequency and seasonality. Managers may consider the MFI for rehabilitation burns, and range of fire intervals for long-term maintenance burns. However, prescribed burns are not the only answer for managers. Fire must be used in accordance with silvicultural techniques that mimic natural disturbance regimes such as TSI and shelterwood harvests which create large overstory gaps suitable for oak-hickory recruitment.

This dissertation analyses and appraises factors that lead SADCC/SADC to restructure in 1992 and in 1999 respectively. Regime theory is used as an analytical tool of these factors throughout this study. The restructuring of regional organisation in the world is often associated with a decision that is taken by regional leaders, only to hide failures of these organisations to deliver. Studies of this phenomenon, however, frequently fail to research the underlying causes. In the case of SADCC/SADC, apart from the fact that the organisation failed to achieve its intended objectives, such as regional integration, economic independence, regional security, and more, this study argues that there were a lot of elements that influenced the pace and the operations of SADCC/C in achieving regional integration and other objectives. The basic debate in this study thus revolves around the fact that the restructuring exercise in SADCC/SADC was a result of many factors and this argument is supported by the regime theory. / Political Science / M.A. (Political Science)

This study is concerned with the process of linguistic adoption, in particular the setting up of techniques that can be used to identify adopted material (adoptives) within Bantu languages and especially adoptives that result from the mutual interpenetration of Bantu languages. A model of identification has been set up principally by applying Guthrie's comparative techniques and results to Matengo (N13), a Bantu language spoken in Southern Tanzania. After a background description to the languages involved here and a brief treatment of some of the theories generally held on Lexical Borrowing, in which Swahili loans of non-Bantu provenance have mostly been employed, regular and irregular (skewed) reflexes of Common Bantu 'starred' forms in Matengo have been abstracted, and the skewed reflexes examined to determine whether or not the forms involved are loan suspects. When the irregular reflexes contain extraneous phonological features, whether segmental (Chapter 3) or tonal (Chapter 5), and especially if a possible source language for the skewing or extraneousness can be found, then our suspicion regarding loaning is strengthened. The languages employed in this study as examples of those from which Matengo might have adopted part of its Bantu material are Manda (N11) and Ngoni (N12), close linguistic associates of Matengo, and Standard Swahili (here distinguished from Ki-Unguja - G42d) which has had significant contact with Matengo. The identification methodology developed in this study has also been tested on material unrelated to Common Bantu (Chapter 4) and some putative adoptives of intra-Bantu source have been detected in such material. In this connection, only the segmental features have been taken into account, since the tonal typologies of Common Eastern Nyasa (*EN) have not been worked out.