This research examines the collective action and financial dimensions of rural waterpoint sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa. Four interlinking papers empirically evaluate the nature and drivers of financial risks, and how they in turn impact the operational performance of community water supplies. The research is grounded in conceptual and theoretical frameworks pertaining to collective action and common-pool resource management, in particular Ostrom's social-ecological systems framework (Ostrom, 2007), Musgrave & Musgrave's economic good framework (Musgrave & Musgrave, 1973), and Marwell & Oliver's critical mass theory (Marwell & Oliver, 1993). The first paper analyses data extracted from national waterpoint inventories in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda. The remaining three papers draw on primary data from rural Kenya comprising 229 years' worth of water committee financial records, a census of 571 waterpoints, and a survey of 3,361 households. These data were collected during extensive field work campaigns in Kwale, Kenya. Quantitative analyses were carried out by way of advanced statistical techniques, including logistic regression, linear mixed (repeated measure) models, and generalised estimating equations. Results suggest collection of user fees is a significant determinant of waterpoint sustainability, alongside other institutional, technical, geographical and environmental variables. However, monthly payment arrangements are beset by non-payment and late payment, particularly if rainfall levels are high, group size is large, households are far away, and water is aggressive and unpalatable. Although monthly contribution levels remain relatively stable above a collective payment rate of 60%, there is little evidence of self-sustaining growth beyond this point, and revenue collection is prone to collapse below this collective payment threshold. In comparison, pay-as-you-fetch fees are associated with increased revenue and improved operational performance, but result in a higher proportion of households opting for an unimproved water source. If the Sustainable Development Goal of universal access to safe water supplies is to be achieved in rural sub-Saharan Africa, strategies are needed to strengthen revenue collection systems and bolster payment incentives. External support and professionalised service delivery models present potential pathways to advance these goals. Policymakers may also need to introduce carefully designed subsidies, or promote self-supply approaches that realign lifecycle costs with users' willingness-to-pay.

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In this thesis I will discuss the development, construction and testing of a sub-Kelvin Q-band electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrometer and optically detected magnetic resonance (ODMR) of wide bandgap semiconductors at Q-band. The sub-Kelvin EPR spectrometer was developed to be integrated into a standard commercial system. Characterisation of the cryogenics and microwave components of the spectrometer will be discussed as well as the design and adaptations made to enable EPR experiments to be performed below 1 K. A waveguide thermal break design, previously only used in detectors for the cosmic microwave background radiation, was optimised using ANSYS High frequency structure simulator (HFSS) to operate at Q-band and was built and tested in this spectrometer. The sub-Kelvin EPR spectra of Cr3+ in Al2O3 and [Cr12O9(OH)3(O2CCMe3)15] were obtained. The resonant cavity of the spectrometer was also successfully tested at room temperature, with a pulsed microwave bridge, paving the way for further development of the system to enable sub-Kelvin pulsed EPR. A home-built Q-band ODMR spectrometer was used to investigate the wide band gap semiconductors ZnO and InGaN/GaN multiple quantum wells (MQWs). The ZnO was a natural crystal, and used to characterise the spectrometer. ODMR from a green c-plane InGaN/GaN MQW was studied to probe the method of carrier localisation in the QW. It was shown qualitatively that the ODMR results support current theories for carrier localisation mechanisms, but the noise on these measurements needs to be reduced to provide quantitative support.

Urotensin II (UII) is a potent peptide hormone with a complex species and vessel-dependent vascular profile. UII and the homologous UII-related peptide (URP) bind to the g-protein coupled urotensin II receptor (UT) with high affinity. The peptide ligands and receptor have been detected in numerous human and rat tissues including heart, brain and kidney. The kidney is a major source of UII, which appears to act as both an endocrine and paracrine mediator of renal function. UII has been shown to influence renal blood flow, glomerular filtration rate and sodium handling in the renal tubules. More speculative actions of UII as a pro-fibrotic mediator include the activation of fibroblasts and promotion of collagen synthesis. Abnormally elevated UII, URP and UT expression has been highlighted in a number of cardio-renal disease states; particularly end stage renal disease, diabetes and diabetic nephropathy (DN). This work aims to investigate the role of the UII system in the development and progression of CKD using an experimental model of CKD in rodents. The first aim of the current work involved establishing the surgical 5/6th subtotal nephrectomy (SNx) model of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the laboratory and forming a profile of UII expression in late stage experimental CKD to complement UII clinical data which are exclusively from patients in the later stages of disease. UII/URP and UT were substantially over-expressed in the kidneys of SNx rats in late stage CKD. This novel insight complements the clinical profile of CKD/DN where over expression of the UII system is routinely reported. In a second study the 5/6th SNx rat model was used to explore the effects of chronic UT receptor antagonism on the progression of CKD. Although there were no discernible differences in kidney mass or histological profile between the treatment groups at the end of the study, there was a small delay in the development of albuminuria and in the onset of systolic blood pressure elevation in the UT antagonist treated cohort. The study did not produce clear-cut evidence defining the potential therapeutic value of UT-antagonism in the treatment of CKD. Despite this the results are encouraging and suggest that the role of UT-inhibition in CKD is worth considering further.

Dusty star-forming galaxies (DSFGs) are highly luminous (LFIR ≳ 10¹² L⊙), very distant (z ≳2.5) and ≳ 10x rarer then 'normal', NIR-selected (BzK), star-forming galaxies. Capable of producing a Mstars ≳ 10¹¹-M⊙ galaxy after a tburst ~ 100-Myr burst of late-stage, merger-induced star formation, DSFGs naturally provide extreme laboratories with which to study the formation and evolution of massive structures within the Universe. Thus far, however, theoretical models have struggled to reconcile the observed abundance and redshift distribution of these massive, dust-enshrouded galaxies that occupy the high-end tail of the galaxy stellar mass function. Therefore, it is of paramount importance, from an observational point of view, to both increase the number of known distant (z ≳ 4) DSFGs and to thoroughly explore their extreme environments in order to provide further constraints on such models. Thus, in Chapter 2 of this thesis, I report on efforts to substantially increase the number of distant DSFGs using the uniquely wide H-ATLAS imaging survey. I analysed a sample of 109, so-called 'ultra-red galaxies' selected via their red Herschel-SPIRE flux densities (σ500 > 3.5 and S500 < 100mJy) and flux-density ratios (S500/S250 > 1.5 and S500/S350 > 0.85). Ground-Based continuum imaging at ~ 850 μm with the JCMT and APEX telescopes allowed me to locate the dust peaks of these S500 ≳ 30-mJy ultra-red galaxies and derive a median photometric redshift of zphot = 3.66 (3.30-4.27, IQR) for them (assuming that they can satisfactorily be represented by a Tdust ~ 30-K template SED). Using 25 spectroscopically confirmed DSFGs with SPIRE flux densities matching this ultra-red criteria, I determined that these FIR photometric redshift estimates have a minimum intrinsic scatter of σ = 0.14(1 + zspec) and systematically under-estimate the spectroscopic redshifts below zspec ≲ 5. With over a third of these ultra-red galaxies lying above z > 4, I derived a space density of at least p ≈ 6 x 10⁻⁷Mpc⁻³ for this sample (assuming a tburst = 100-Myr burst of star formation), which is only a factor of 7x less numerous than that of the most massive (Mstars ≳ 10¹¹M⊙), compact, quiescent galaxies selected in the NIR at z ~ 3. Finally, although the space density of z > 4 ultra-red galaxies aligns very well with that of massive (MBH ≳ 10⁸M⊙) AGN at z > 6, none have yet to be uncovered within this sample to date. In the following chapter, I present wide images obtained with LABOCA of a sub-sample of 22, representative ultra-red galaxies to see if these galaxies are signposting over-dense regions in the early Universe, as might be expected if they were to evolve into the most massive, compact, quiescent galaxies at z ~ 0. This LABOCA ultra-red galaxy survey covers an area of ≈ 0.8 deg² down to an average r.m.s. of 3.9mJy beam⁻¹, with the five deepest images going ≈ 2x deeper still. I catalogue 86 galaxies detected above > 3.5σ870 surrounding these 22 ultra-red galaxies, which implies a δ ≈ 100 ± 30% over-density of S870 > 8.5-mJy (LFIR ≈ (7-30) x 10¹² L⊙) DSFGs when compared against LESS. Thus, I am 99.93% confident that these ultra-red galaxies are pinpointing over-dense regions in the Universe, and ≈ 95% confident that these regions are over-dense by a factor of at least ≥ 1.5x. Using the same template SEDs as in the previous chapter, I derived a consistent median photometric redshift of z = 3.2 ± 0.2 with an IQR of z = 2.8-3.6 for these ultra-red galaxies. I constrained the surrounding galaxies likely responsible for this over-density to within |∆z| ≤ 0.65 of their respective ultra-red galaxies. However, on average, I was only able to associate one surrounding galaxy to within |∆z| ≤ 0.5 of its respective ultra-red galaxy. These 'associated' galaxies are radially distributed within (physical) distances of 1.6 ± 0.5Mpc from their ultra-red galaxies, have median SFRs of vI≈ (1.0±0.2)x10³M⊙ yr⁻¹ (assuming a Salpeter stellar IMF) and median gas reservoirs of Mgas ~ 1.7 x 10¹¹M⊙. These candidate proto-clusters have average total SFRs of at least Ψ ≈ (2.3 ± 0.5) x 10³M⊙ yr⁻¹ and a space density of ~ 9 x 10⁻⁷Mpc⁻³, consistent with the idea that their constituents may occupy the centres of rich galaxy clusters seen today. Finally, in Chapter 4 of this thesis, I extracted Herschel-SPIRE photometry at the 850-μm positions of DSFGs detected within in the S2CLS and S2COSMOS imaging surveys. I then analysed the multi-wavelength environmental properties around a robust sample of 64 ultra-red galaxies selected via their 'ultra-red probability'. Similar to the findings in Chapter 3, I found that these ultra-red galaxies are preferentially located in over-dense regions extending over scales of ~ 5' (or ~ 2Mpc at z ~ 3). Furthermore, I found that these candidate, high-redshift proto-clusters have FIR total dust masses and total SFRs of Mdust ~ 10⁹M⊙ and Ψ ~ 10³M⊙ yr⁻¹, respectively. Ground-Based, optical/NIR imaging around a subset of 42 ultra-red galaxies shows a factor of ~ 5x increase in both the stellar mass and the (MB -MI )-colour of associated LBGs as the radial distance decreases from . 500 kpc - consistent with the emergence of a galaxy red sequence at z ~ 3. Furthermore, these data show a 1-σ increase in the fraction of 'green-valley' galaxies within scales of ~ 5' compared to the field - supporting the concept that red-sequence galaxies are appearing at a faster rate around ultra-red galaxies compared to the field. There is a sizeable contribution of Mstars ~ 10¹²M⊙ from these high-redshift LBGs within the environments of ultra-red galaxies. On average, I was able to associate ≈ 28 LBGs to a given ultra-red galaxy (~ 30x the number of associated DSFGs). Although these systems have average optical/NIR/FIR properties that are consistent with their evolution into present-day galaxy clusters with DM halos of mass Mhalo ~ 10¹⁴-10¹⁵M⊙, I am still likely missing a sizeable contribution from unassociated LBGs and DSFGs due to the large photometric redshift uncertainties for the ultra-red galaxies. Therefore, the results presented in this thesis should be regarded as firm lower limits on these environmental properties around ultra-red galaxies, which can now only be improved upon when spectroscopic data increases the accuracy of the photometric redshift estimates presented here.

Sub-state nationalist parties mobilised and saw an increase in electoral support in the 1960s and 1970s. A heterogeneous group of parties, they are united by their claims upon the state in favour of self-government. However, sub-state nationalist parties advance a variety of goals, ranging from more moderate forms of recognition and cultural or political autonomy, to more radical restructuring of the state along federal lines, to even more radical demands for political independence. The language, content, and arguments in favour of these goals varies - both between parties and within individual parties - over time. As a result, we know less than we should about self-government goals themselves. This research asks two core questions. Firstly, what do sub-state nationalist parties want? And more importantly, operating from the assumption that sub-state nationalist parties are strategic actors, how do their goals reflect strategic considerations, understanding of the contexts in which they are expressed, and their historical positions? By comparing three cases, a third question can be explored, assessing the ways in which variation in the empirical contexts in which these goals are articulated may manifest in variation in the framing of self-government goals. In this research, I argue the self-government goal presented by a given sub-state nationalist party can be considered a reflection of the 'art of the possible', a pragmatic articulation of what might be achieved under a system of constraints rather than the single-minded pursuit of self-government, regardless of its costs and consequences. In order to fully capture the complexity of self-government goals and the contexts in which they are expressed, three case studies, in two territorial contexts, are studied in depth. The first is the Scottish National Party, which seeks political independence for Scotland. The other two are parties which emerged in Flanders, the Volksunie, which existed between 1954 and 2001, and its successor, the Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie. These cases represent some of the most successful sub-state nationalist parties, both in electoral terms, particularly in recent years, and arguably in making progress towards their self-government goals.

Unemployment and underemployment, particularly among the youth, are serious concerns to governments across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Fifteen years on from the World Conference on Education For All (EFA) in Jomtien, EFA policies have started to result in some of the largest cohorts of primary school leavers ever witnessed in many parts of SSA. This is occurring at a time when SSA’s formal sector is unable to generate sufficient formal employment and income opportunities. The great majority of all school leavers, therefore, are obliged to enter the informal, micro-enterprise economy, urban and rural, and receive informal training in traditional apprenticeships and/or through other on-the-job means. However the links between education, training and enterprise are still poorly understood. This study presents an investigation into how young people construct and are able to navigate these pathways to informal self-employment in rural Ghana by acquiring skills and schooling from multiple sources, and through seeking assistance from informal networks. It makes a contribution not only to understanding the transition from training to self-employment, but also to the nature of the rural informal sector in Ghana. This study examines three types of skills training provision; on-the-job apprenticeship training, short-term modular training and longer-term pre-employment training, examining both the delivery context of these different training modalities, as well as the graduates’ labour market outcomes. The analysis is based on 12 months fieldwork in rural Ghana in 2004 and 2005 during which time multiple approaches were used to uncover these skill-to-work pathways; tracer studies with 162 vocational training graduates, semi-structured interviews with 160 apprentices and a household survey capturing data on 147 youth. Furthermore, retrospective interviews with 114 enterprise owners were conducted to better understand pathways to informal self-employment and the multiple occupational realities, or occupational pluralism, of many of those in this rural African economy. This data suggests that the school-skill-enterprise relationship is highly dependent on the delivery context of training as well as the type of enabling or disabling environments within which the training is translated into employment outcomes. This study also includes an analysis of the long history of Ghana’s skills development policies and practice - up to 2006. This is integrated with a discussion on the wider environment within which skills are delivered, particularly the labour market, and how this impacts on the employment opportunities of technical and vocational education and training graduates in Ghana.

Magister Psychologiae - MPsych / Substance use is a major problem in South Africa, particularly within the Western Cape. The problem of substance use is prominent amongst adolescents in low socio-economic-status communities, and these prevalence rates are increasing. Literature regarding the onset of substance use is often limited and inadequate. It is for this reason that the South African Substance Use Contextual Risk Instrument (SASUCRI) was developed and employed to assess factors which contribute to adolescent substance use. The SASUCRI is a measure of the individual and contextual factors associated with adolescent substance use. It was developed to be used in low socio-economic-status communities to identify adolescents at risk for substance use as well as communities in which these risk factors are present. The initial validation study reports on the validity evidence for this instrument. The initial study identified items to be rewritten to improve the validity of the instrument. It further recommended the inclusion of additional items to improve reliability in some sub-scales. This contributed to the current study. The purpose of this study was to pretest the new and revised items. The researcher pretested both the English and the Afrikaans’s revised sub-scales of the SASUCRI. The following sub-scales were pretested; “School as support” (6 items), “School as a stressor” (6 items), “Tolerance for soft drugs” (6 items), Hopelessness individual”(11 items) and “Hopelessness community” (5 items). The theoretical framework employed was the Multi-Component Approach. The framework guided the data collection, analysis and partially the discussion of the findings. The study was of a qualitative nature. Two schools were selected from low socio-economic status communities. The study had 32 high school learners who participated. There were 4 focus groups conducted in total.

Espécies típicas de sub-bosque são pouco estudadas quanto à sua aplicação na restauração e enriquecimento de florestas degradadas. São em geral arvoretas ou arbustos finais de sucessão, tolerantes ao sombreamento, capazes de germinar, se estabelecer e completar seu ciclo de vida neste ambiente, representando importante fonte de recursos como alimento e abrigo para polinizadores e dispersores. Porém, não são amplamente utilizadas nos plantios de restauração por não serem espécies de dossel, e em paisagens altamente fragmentadas há poucas chances de chegarem naturalmente em áreas em processo de restauração. Visando contribuir para o desenvolvimento de técnicas de plantio e enriquecimento em áreas degradadas ou em processo de restauração que favoreçam a recuperação do subbosque, este trabalho teve o objetivo de avaliar a sobrevivência e o crescimento de mudas de 10 espécies típicas de sub-bosque plantadas em quatro diferentes condições: plantio inicial de restauração, áreas em processo de restauração com 5 e 10 anos de idade e um fragmento remanescente degradado. Todas as áreas de estudo localizam-se na região de Batatais, SP e estão inseridas no Bioma Mata Atlântica, mais especificamente na fisionomia de Floresta Estacional Semidecidual. As mudas foram plantadas em janeiro de 2012 e observadas durante 15 meses quanto ao crescimento e sobrevivência. As áreas de estudo foram caracterizadas quanto aos atributos químicos, físicos e granulométricos do solo, cobertura e florística do dossel. A análise de componentes principais (PCA) mostrou que entre estas variáveis a que teve maior relação com o crescimento relativo das mudas foi a cobertura do dossel. A área que teve maior eficiência na introdução das espécies típicas de sub-bosque, considerando crescimento e sobrevivência, foi o plantio inicial de restauração, onde 3 espécies foram muito eficientes e 6 foram eficientes. No plantio com 5 anos 1 espécie foi muito eficiente e 4 foram eficientes, porém, cresceram bem menos que no plantio inicial. Os resultados apontaram ainda que apenas 3 espécies foram eficientes na área em processo de restauração de 10 anos e nenhuma no fragmento remanescente degradado, mostrando a dificuldade de se realizar o enriquecimento de áreas com alto nível de sombreamento, e de se reverter o processo de degradação nessas áreas, reforçando a importância da utilização de alta diversidade de espécies e grupos funcionais nos plantios de restauração e da conservação das áreas florestais remanescentes. / Species typical from understory layers are poorly studied regarding their use in restoration and enrichment of degraded forests. They are generally treelets or shrubs of final successional phase, shade tolerant, able to germinate, establish and complete their life cycle in this environment. They are an important source of resources as food and shelter to pollinators and dispersers. Despite their ecological importance, these plants have not been widely used in restoration plantings because they are not canopy species. In fragmented landscapes, these species have little chance of being recruited naturally into areas undergoing restoration. In order to contribute to the development of techniques of planting and enrichment in degraded areas or areas being restored and promote the recuperation of understory layers, this study evaluated the survival and growth of seedlings of 10 understory species planted under four different conditions: initial planting; 5-year-old restoration area; 10- year-old restoration area; and degraded forest fragment. All sites are located in the region of Batatais, SP, Brazil, inside the Atlantic Forest biome, specifically in the Seasonal Semidecidual Forest type. Seedlings were planted in January 2012 and measured during 15 months for their survival and growth. Study sites were characterized regarding soil chemical and physical attributes and granulometry, and canopy composition and coverage. Principal components analysis (PCA) showed that relative growth of seedlings was more strongly related to canopy coverage. Considering survivorship and growth, introduction of understory species was more successful at the initial planting site, where three species were very successful and six were successful. In the 5-year-old restoration area, one species was very successful and four were considered successful, however, they grew considerably less than at the initial planting site. Results point out that only three species were successful at the 10-year-old restoration area and none at the forest fragment, which shows the difficulty of enriching areas with high levels of shading, and thus, the difficulty of reversing degradation of forest remnants. This reinforces the importance of using high diversity of species and functional groups in restoration plantings and also of conserving remnant forests.

Coming Through, a novel based on factual events, explores elements of the alternative sub-culture in Australia in the period between 1959 and 1980. Dual protagonists, Anna Martin and Jack Rose, personify aspects of the movement that would later be known as 'psychedelic romanticism.' The narrative follows Jack Rose's disenchantment with the prevailing social system and his efforts to achieve personal integration and his conflict with societal pressures to conform. Likewise, in a parallel narrative, it describes the events that surround Anna Martin's early institutionalisation and her attempt to achieve personal authenticity. When the protagonists finally encounter one another they find that a common and binding philosophy has drawn them together. The thesis looks at the prevailing social notions of'normality' at the time and the problems associated with alienation and the struggle to found alternative life styles in a society they deem to be repressive.