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The focus of the thesis is a critique of the form and function of the federal institutions governing the development of Rural Australia. In undertaking this study two cycles of a systemic action research were followed, the first to explore the policy development environment and the second to validate and expand on findings of the first cycle of enquiry. The thesis follows the historical development of policy institutions and the deliberations of poicy actors that have lead to normative, strategic and program change within these institutions. These institutional changes have then been critiqued from theoretical perspective of governance for sustainable development. Conclusions from this critique indicate that that the pace of policy change is very slow and after 20 years from the Rural Policy green paper of 1974 the federal institutions have taken on board a rhetoric of sustainable rural development that encapsulates much of the principles espoused in the Green Paper.This includes principles that aim to empower rural communities to find local solutions to their natural resource management and local economic development problems. The downside is found in institutional conflict over resource dependencies and spheres of responsibility and an apparent lack of community economic development facilitation skills within the service organisations of rural institutions. / Master of Science (Hons)

[Truncated abstract] The initial success of the Green Revolution notwithstanding, the ability of our planet to produce sufficient food to support its growing population is causing growing concern. Indonesia, like many other countries, cannot produce sufficient rice to feed its people. This creates an imperative to import rice that Indonesia wishes to overcome. In addition, agricultural intensification has created ecological contamination from overuse and the mismanagement of chemical inputs. These problems threaten the sustainability of agricultural lands and Indonesia's ability to support national food selfsufficiency. The extension of agricultural lands is one alternative that has been implemented by the Indonesian government for more than two decades. Families from the crowded islands of Java and Bali have been translocated to the outer islands of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua. In South Kalimantan, the tidal swampland areas are one of the resettlement destinations; which are usually reclaimed for the purpose of increasing rice production. However, the difference between the natural characteristics, socialeconomics, language, and culture in South Kalimantan, compared with the homelands of the transmigrant farmers, has the potential to adversely affect the farming activities of both the transmigrant and the local indigenous farmers. This in turn might affect the sustainability of the tidal wetlands for agricultural production. It may also damage the ecological integrity of the coastal environment ... The research findings indicate that farming practices by the groups differed significantly. Similarly, there was a significant difference between the cultivation of traditional rice varieties and the HYV. Farming practices performed by the indigenous local farmers, who have lived in the swamplands for centuries, were more ecologically sustainable than those of their transmigrant counterparts in both of the tidal swamplands being assessed. Likewise, traditional (indigenous) rice variety cultivation appears to be more sustainable than the HYVs. Among the socio-economic and agronomic influences of the farming practices selected for statistical analysis, only the non-formal education variable had a significant impact on the sustainability index. Tidal swampland Type B has lower yields than Type A, but in both swampland types, indigenous farmers produce higher yields than the transmigrant farmers, while the HYV has a higher yield over the traditional one. Indigenous farmers received higher financial returns per ha compared to the transmigrant returns in tidal swampland Type A and Type B. The higher yields produced by the HYVs are not accompanied by a higher financial return per ha compared to the traditional variety. The conclusions of this research are that not only are indigenous farming practices more sustainable but that indigenous farmers achieve a higher overall output and higher returns per ha from their farming activities. Future research should be formulated to further investigate the implications for both increasing rice production and sustainability by extending the use of indigenous farming systems. The sustainability index developed in this research should be investigated for adaptation in other areas of Indonesia and possibly by other farming areas internationally.

Doctor of Philosophy / Precision Agriculture (PA) strives towards holistic production and environmental management. A fundamental research challenge is the continuous expansion of ideas about how PA can contribute to sustainable agriculture. Some associated pragmatic research challenges include quantification of spatio-temporal variation of crop yield; crop growth simulation modelling within a PA context and; evaluating long-term financial and environmental outcomes from site-specific crop management (SSCM). In Chapter 1 literature about managing whole farms with a mind towards sustainability was reviewed. Alternative agricultural systems and concepts including systems thinking, agro-ecology, mosaic farming and PA were investigated. With respect to environmental outcomes it was found that PA research is relatively immature. There is scope to thoroughly evaluate PA from a long-term, whole-farm environmental and financial perspective. Comparatively, the emphasis of PA research on managing spatial variability offers promising and innovative ways forward, particularly in terms of designing new farming systems. It was found that using crop growth simulation modelling in a PA context is potentially very useful. Modelling high-resolution spatial and temporal variability with current simulation models poses a number of immediate research issues. This research focused on three whole farms located in Australia that grow predominantly grains without irrigation. These study sites represent three important grain growing regions within Australia. These are northern NSW, north-east Victoria and South Australia. Note-worthy environmental and climatic differences between these regions such as rainfall timing, soil type and topographic features were outlined in Chapter 2. When considering adoption of SSCM, it is essential to understand the impact of temporal variation on the potential value of managing spatial variation. Quantifying spatiotemporal variation of crop yield serves this purpose; however, this is a conceptually and practically challenging undertaking. A small number of previous studies have found that the magnitude of temporal variation far exceeds that of spatial variation. Chapter 3 of this thesis dealt with existing and new approaches quantifying the relationship between spatial and temporal variability in crop yield. It was found that using pseudo cross variography to obtain spatial and temporal variation ‘equivalents’ is a promising approach to quantitatively comparing spatial and temporal variation. The results from this research indicate that more data in the temporal dimension is required to enable thorough analysis using this approach. This is particularly relevant when questioning the suitability of SSCM. Crop growth simulation modelling offers PA a number of benefits such as the ability to simulate a considerable volume of data in the temporal dimension. A dominant challenge recognised within the PA/modelling literature is the mismatch between the spatial resolution of point-based model output (and therefore input) and the spatial resolution of information demanded by PA. This culminates into questions about the conceptual model underpinning the simulation model and the practicality of using point-based models to simulate spatial variability. iii The ability of point-based models to simulate appropriate spatial and temporal variability of crop yield and the importance of soil available water capacity (AWC) for these simulations were investigated in Chapter 4. The results indicated that simulated spatial variation is low compared to some previously reported spatial variability of real yield data for some climate years. It was found that the structure of spatial yield variation was directly related to the structure of the AWC and interactions between AWC and climate. It is apparent that varying AWC spatially is a reasonable starting point for modelling spatial variation of crop yield. A trade-off between capturing adequate spatio-temporal variation of crop yield and the inclusion of realistically obtainable model inputs is identified. A number of practical solutions to model parameterisation for PA purposes are identified in the literature. A popular approach is to minimise the number of simulations required. Another approach that enables modelling at every desired point across a study area involves taking advantage of high-resolution yield information from a number of years to estimate site-specific soil properties with the inverse use of a crop growth simulation model. Inverse meta-modelling was undertaken in Chapter 5 to estimate AWC on 10- metre grids across each of the study farms. This proved to be an efficient approach to obtaining high-resolution AWC information at the spatial extent of whole farms. The AWC estimates proved useful for yield prediction using simple linear regression as opposed to application within a complex crop growth simulation model. The ability of point-based models to simulate spatial variation was re-visited in Chapter 6 with respect to the exclusion of lateral water movement. The addition of a topographic component into the simple point-based yield prediction models substantially improved yield predictions. The value of these additions was interpreted using coefficients of determination and comparing variograms for each of the yield prediction components. A result consistent with the preceding chapter is the importance of further validating the yield prediction models with further yield data when it becomes available. Finally, some whole-farm management scenarios using SSCM were synthesised in Chapter 7. A framework that enables evaluation of the long-term (50 years) farm outcomes soil carbon sequestration, nitrogen leaching and crop yield was established. The suitability of SSCM across whole-farms over the long term was investigated and it was found that the suitability of SSCM is confined to certain fields. This analysis also enabled identification of parts of the farms that are the least financially and environmentally viable. SSCM in conjunction with other PA management strategies is identified as a promising approach to long-term and whole-farm integrated management.

In the semi - arid Mediterranean - type environments of southern Australia, soil and water resources largely determine crop productivity and ultimately the sustainability of farming systems within the region. The development of sustainable farming systems is a constantly evolving process, of which cropping sequences ( rotations ) are an essential component. This thesis focused on two important soil resources, soil water and nitrogen, and studied the effects of different crop sequences on the dynamic of these resources within current farming systems practiced on the upper Eyre Peninsula of South Australia. The hypothesis tested was that : continuous cropping may alter N dynamics but will not necessarily alter water use efficiency in semi - arid Mediterranean - type environments. Continuous cropping altered N - dynamics ; increases in inorganic N were dependent on the inclusion of a legume in the cropping sequence. Associated with the increase in inorganic N supply was a decrease in WUE by the subsequent wheat crop. Overall, estimates of water use efficiency, a common index of the sustainability of farming systems, in this study concur with reported values for the semi - arid Murray - Mallee region of southern Australia and other semi - arid environments worldwide. Soil water balance and determination of WUE for a series of crop sequences in this thesis suggests that the adoption of continuous cropping may increase WUE and confer a yield benefit compared to crop sequences including a legume component in this environment. No differences in total water use ( ET ) at anthesis or maturity were measured for wheat regardless of the previous crop. Soil evaporation ( E [subscript s] ) was significantly affected by crop canopy development, measured as LAI from tillering until anthesis in 2002, however total seasonal E [subscript s] did not differ between crop sequences. Indeed in environments with infrequent rainfall, such as the upper Eyre Peninsula, soil evaporation may be water - limited rather than energy limited and the potential benefits from greater LAI and reduced E [subscript s] are less. Greater shoot dry matter production and LAI due to an enhanced inorganic N supply for wheat after legumes, and to a lesser degree wheat after canola, relative to continuous cereal crop sequences resulted in increases in WUE calculated at anthesis, as reported by others. Nonetheless the increase in WUE was not sustained due to limitations on available soil water capacity caused by soil physical and chemical constraints. Access to more soil water at depth ( > 0.8m ) through additional root growth was unavailable due to soil chemical limitations. More importantly, the amount of plant available water within the ' effective rooting depth ' ( 0 - 0.8m ) was significantly reduced when soil physical factors were accounted for using the integral water capacity ( IWC ) concept. The difference between the magnitude of the plant available water capacity and the integral water capacity was approximately 90mm within the ' effective rooting depth ' when measured at field capacity, suggesting that the ability of the soil to store water and buffer against periodic water deficit was severely limited. The IWC concept offers a method of evaluating the physical quality of soils and the limitations that these physical properties, viz. aeration, soil strength and hydraulic conductivity, impose on the water supply capacity of the soil. The inability of the soil to maintain a constant supply of water to satisfy maximal transpiration efficiency combined with large amounts of N resulted in ' haying off ', and reduced grain yields. A strong negative linear relationship was established between WUE of grain production by wheat and increasing soil NO [subscript 3] - N at sowing in 2000 and 2002, which conflicts with results from experiments in semi - arid Mediterranean climates in other regions of the world where applications of N increased water use efficiency of grain. Estimates of proportional dependence on N [subscript 2] fixation ( % N [subscript dfa] ) for annual medics and vetch from this study ( 43 - 80 % ) are comparable to others for environments in southern Australia ( < 450mm average annual rainfall ). Such estimates of fixation are considered low ( < 65 % ) to adequate ( 65 - 80 % ). Nevertheless, the amount of plant available N present at sowing for subsequent wheat crops, and the occurrence of ' haying off ', suggests that WUE is not N - limited per se, as implied by some reports, but constrained by the capacity of a soil to balance the co - limiting factors of water and nitrogen. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2005.

<p>Botanical pesticides are agricultural pest management agents which are based on plant extracts. In modern times these have been used as alternatives to synthetic chemicals in organic pest management. The practice of using plant materials against field and storage pests however has a long history in many indigenous and traditional farming communities across the world. During February and March 2009 a field study was conducted in Babati district in Manyara region, Tanzania to investigate the local use of botanical pesticides. The results from the field study were subsequently analyzed and contextualized in Nicanor Perlas model The Seven Dimensions of Sustainable Agriculture which was used as a framework theory. The analysis indicates that there are a variety of thresholds for the use of botanical pesticides in sustainable agriculture in Babati district besides the more obvious practical aspects. The latter parts of the paper discuss the differences between reductionist and holistic, indigenous and scientific ways of achieving knowledge with regard to plant based pesticides. The study concludes that ecological pest management is a holistic method based on the synergy of a variety of farming practices. Indigenous knowledge which is holistic, site-specific and experience based has therefore much to offer modern endeavours to practice a more sustainable agriculture and pest management strategies which consider the welfare of both humanity and the environment.</p>

Maya Mopan farmers in southern Belize face socio-economic hardships, persisting environmental constraints, and an unfavorable political climate that has prevented land tenure stability on reservation lands. This thesis describes the agricultural practices of a group of Mopan farmers and examines farm-site diversification and its relationship to ecological knowledge, out-migration, agricultural markets, and indigenous political systems. I also examine how modernization, religious conversions, and the Mopan's introduction into a capitalist economy have led to a decline in cultural practices and the augmentation of non-traditional behaviors among the younger generations. Data were obtained during my fieldwork in the Cayo and Toledo Districts of southern Belize from June-November, 2002. I conducted informal interviews with farmers and NGOs, engaged in participant observation techniques, documented 17 diversified Mayan farms, and formulated a self-administered questionnaire that was given to 38 students in the San Jose Village School. Additional data was acquired through voluntary work in farmers' fields and from available anthropological and agricultural literature. The results of this study indicate that Mopan farmers have diversified their farming systems by adopting new crop varieties, developing more sustainable agricultural techniques, increasing the production of cash crops, and adjusting their traditional labor systems. These findings are significant because they demonstrate ways in which farming communities throughout the tropics can improve their environments and economies amidst the influences of modernization, unsustainable development, and discriminatory government policies. / Graduation date: 2005

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2006. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 526-547).

Botanical pesticides are agricultural pest management agents which are based on plant extracts. In modern times these have been used as alternatives to synthetic chemicals in organic pest management. The practice of using plant materials against field and storage pests however has a long history in many indigenous and traditional farming communities across the world. During February and March 2009 a field study was conducted in Babati district in Manyara region, Tanzania to investigate the local use of botanical pesticides. The results from the field study were subsequently analyzed and contextualized in Nicanor Perlas model The Seven Dimensions of Sustainable Agriculture which was used as a framework theory. The analysis indicates that there are a variety of thresholds for the use of botanical pesticides in sustainable agriculture in Babati district besides the more obvious practical aspects. The latter parts of the paper discuss the differences between reductionist and holistic, indigenous and scientific ways of achieving knowledge with regard to plant based pesticides. The study concludes that ecological pest management is a holistic method based on the synergy of a variety of farming practices. Indigenous knowledge which is holistic, site-specific and experience based has therefore much to offer modern endeavours to practice a more sustainable agriculture and pest management strategies which consider the welfare of both humanity and the environment.

GlobalGAP (previously EurepGAP) is a voluntary business-to-business standard for food audit that has recently achieved the greatest acceptance worldwide (Campbell, Lawrence & Smith 2006) boasting implementation numbers of over 80,000 farms in 80 countries. Compliance with the standard is verified by means of the third party certification (TPC) audit, and is designed to (GlobalGAP 2008) assure European retailers that exporting producers have met their criteria for safe and sustainable agriculture (GlobalGAP 2007b). In 2004, cherry growers in the Southern Interior of British Columbia became the first GlobalGAP certified producers in Canada. This novelty afforded a unique opportunity to observe the introduction of the standard in an industrialized country with well-established regulations and where the capacity of producers to undertake the process was relatively high. A qualitative methodology was used in case studies of two communities to inductively study the implementation of ‘safe and sustainable agriculture’ certification and generate relevant research questions for deeper examination. Sensitizing concepts emerging from observations of the TPC audits (n = 20) evolved into two primary research objectives; 1) to understand the practical application and diffusion of a TPC standard and 2) to explore the efficacy of the TPC standard as a mechanism to promote sustainable agriculture within certain pre-existing contexts. Forty-four follow up interviews were conducted with growers that chose to certify (n = 24), those that did not (n = 14), and other key actors (n = 3). This thesis examines the research objectives over three chapters. The introduction provides the local and global context along with a review of GlobalGAP, agri-food governance and the role of private certification and retailer power. Chapter two presents the technological and sociological factors that influenced the stages of the diffusion of GlobalGAP TPC and compares these factors and outcomes to the technological and sociological components of sustainable agriculture. In the conclusion, policy strategies are offered to maximize the potential for this tool to promote sustainable agriculture along with suggestions for future research on the topic.