GlobalGAP (previously EurepGAP) is a voluntary business-to-business standard for food audit that has recently achieved the greatest acceptance worldwide (Campbell, Lawrence & Smith 2006) boasting implementation numbers of over 80,000 farms in 80 countries. Compliance with the standard is verified by means of the third party certification (TPC) audit, and is designed to (GlobalGAP 2008) assure European retailers that exporting producers have met their criteria for safe and sustainable agriculture (GlobalGAP 2007b). In 2004, cherry growers in the Southern Interior of British Columbia became the first GlobalGAP certified producers in Canada. This novelty afforded a unique opportunity to observe the introduction of the standard in an industrialized country with well-established regulations and where the capacity of producers to undertake the process was relatively high. A qualitative methodology was used in case studies of two communities to inductively study the implementation of ‘safe and sustainable agriculture’ certification and generate relevant research questions for deeper examination. Sensitizing concepts emerging from observations of the TPC audits (n = 20) evolved into two primary research objectives; 1) to understand the practical application and diffusion of a TPC standard and 2) to explore the efficacy of the TPC standard as a mechanism to promote sustainable agriculture within certain pre-existing contexts. Forty-four follow up interviews were conducted with growers that chose to certify (n = 24), those that did not (n = 14), and other key actors (n = 3). This thesis examines the research objectives over three chapters. The introduction provides the local and global context along with a review of GlobalGAP, agri-food governance and the role of private certification and retailer power. Chapter two presents the technological and sociological factors that influenced the stages of the diffusion of GlobalGAP TPC and compares these factors and outcomes to the technological and sociological components of sustainable agriculture. In the conclusion, policy strategies are offered to maximize the potential for this tool to promote sustainable agriculture along with suggestions for future research on the topic.

This thesis presents a comparison of conventional agriculture and Ecological Recycling Agriculture (ERA) in terms of their environmental and socio-economic effects. Environmental effects include greenhouse gas emissions and energy use but the focus is on leakage of nutrients. Socio-economic effects include production, costs and benefits at macro, firm and household levels. The comparison is made at regional (Baltic Sea), national (Swedish) and local (Järna community/Södertälje municipality) levels. At regional level the main challenge is to transform agricultural production in an environmentally friendly direction and reduce nutrient loads while sustaining food production. At national level the challenges are to shift the product mix towards more vegetables and less meat, and to address the geographical division of animal and crop production. At local level the challenge is to achieve sustainable rural development in environmental, economic and social terms. Results: at regional level the empirical findings were scaled up to calculate three scenarios. A scenario where the agriculture sectors of Poland and the Baltic States transform in such a way that their structure and use of resources resembles the Swedish average resulted in a 58% increase of nitrogen and an 18% increase in phosphorus surplus from agriculture and increased food production. Two other scenarios where agriculture in the entire Baltic Sea area converts to ERA resulted in reductions of 47-61% in nitrogen surplus from agriculture and eliminated the phosphorus surplus. In these scenarios food production decreased or remained stable depending on the strategy chosen. At national level, the environmental effects of different production methods, transport and different food baskets were compared. A household survey was performed to construct an alternative food profile. This food basket was high in vegetables, low in meat and high in locally produced organic food compared to the average Swedish food profile. It was also 24% more expensive. Food basket content was found to be as important as production methods in reducing the environmental effects. Localized production and processing was less important. At local level, a network of entrepreneurs engaged in the production, processing and distribution of organic food was studied. Semi-structured interviews were used to assess the network, which was found to be a resilient self-organized network characterized by economic stability and social capital. A high share of locally produced and consumed food was coupled with social and economic sustainability. This was facilitated by well-functioning cooperation within the network and between entrepreneurs, consumers and the municipality. EU expansion can be seen as a window of opportunity for governance of the Baltic Sea and the agriculture sector. A new agricultural regime with large-scale ERA production would result in several environmental gains. Sustainable governance of the Baltic Sea as agreed on in HELCOM cannot be achieved while simultaneously maximizing agricultural production in the surrounding countries. Agricultural production bears large external costs. There is substantial willingness to pay for an improved Baltic Sea environment among the public: this justifies environmentally sound farming practices. The contracting parties of HELCOM, including the Swedish government, have both environmental and economic incentives to use this window of opportunity before it closes. This thesis is the result of a collaboration between Mälardalen University and Stockholm Resilience Centre at Stockholm University. Both universities contributed with supervision and financial support at different stages of the research process. / I den här avhandlingen jämförs konventionellt jordbruk med ekologiskt kretsloppsjordbruk. Jämförelsen görs med avseende på miljöeffekter och socio-ekonomisk påverkan. Av miljöeffekterna är fokus på läckage av växtnäring men utsläpp av växthusgaser samt energianvändning studeras också. Till de socio-ekonomiska effekterna räknas effekter på produktionsvolym samt kostnader och nyttor på såväl samhälls- som företags- och hushållsnivå. Jämförelsen görs på regional (Östersjöområdet), nationell (Sverige) och lokal (Järna/Södertälje kommun) nivå. På regional nivå är den stora utmaningen att omvandla jordbruksproduktionen i miljövänlig riktning och att minska närsaltsbelastningen samtidigt som produktionen hålls uppe. På nationell nivå är en utmaning att ändra produktionssammansättningen mot mer grönsaker och mindre kött samt att minska den geografiska uppdelningen av djurhållning och spannmål. På lokal nivå är utmaningen att uppnå en hållbar landsbygdsutveckling ur miljömässigt såväl som ekonomiskt och socialt perspektiv. Resultat: på regional nivå beräknas miljöpåverkan och påverkan på livsmedelsproduktion i tre olika scenarier. Enligt ett scenario omvandlar Polen och de baltiska staterna sina jordbrukssektorer efter samma struktur och resursanvändning som ett genomsnittligt svenskt jordbruk. Det resulterar i att överskottet av kväve och fosfor i jordbruket ökar med 58% respektive 18% samtidigt som livsmedelsproduktionen ökar. Två andra scenarier där jordbruket i hela Östersjöregionen ställer om till ekologiskt kretsloppsjordbruk resulterar i reduktion av kväveöverskottet från jordbruket med 47-61% samt att fosforöverskottet elimineras. I de här scenarierna skulle livsmedelsproduktionen minska eller vara i princip oförändrad beroende på vilken strategi som väljs. På nationell nivå jämförs miljöpåverkan av olika produktionsmetoder, av transporter samt av olika matkassar. En hushållsstudie genomfördes i en grupp miljömedvetna konsumenter för att konstruera en alternativ matkasse. Matkassen innehöll en stor andel grönsaker, en liten andel kött och mycket lokalt och ekologiskt producerad mat jämfört med en genomsnittlig svensk matkasse. Den var även 24% dyrare i inköp. Det visade sig att miljöbelastningen påverkades väl så mycket av matkassens innehåll som av produktionsmetod. Lokal produktion och förädling var inte lika betydelsefullt. På lokal nivå studerades ett nätverk av entreprenörer engagerade i produktion, förädling och distribution av ekologiska livsmedel. Semistrukturerade intervjuer användes för att studera nätverket. Ett resilient, självorganiserande nätverk karaktäriserat av ekonomisk stabilitet och socialt kapital observerades. En hög andel av lokalt producerad och konsumerad mat samt ett väl fungerande samarbete i nätverket av entreprenörer och mellan entreprenörer, konsumenter och kommunen bidrog till ekonomisk hållbarhet. EU:s utvidgning innebär en möjlighet till förändrad förvaltning av Östersjön och jordbrukssektorn. En omställning i stor skala till ekologiskt kretsloppsjordbruk skulle leda till miljöförbättringar. En hållbar förvaltning av Östersjön, något som överenskommits inom ramen för HELCOM, kan inte uppnås samtidigt som jordbruksproduktionen maximeras i länderna runt Östersjön. Jordbruket orsakar betydande externa kostnader. Betalningsviljan för en förbättrad Östersjömiljö är stor vilket motiverar investeringar i ett miljövänligare, hållbart jordbruk. Medlemmarna i HELCOM, däribland Sveriges regering, har såväl ekonomiska som miljömässiga incitament att utnyttja möjligheten som Polens och de baltiska staternas EU-inträde innebär. Den här avhandlingen är ett samarbetsprojekt mellan Mälardalens högskola och Stockholm Resilience Centre vid Stockholms universitet. Båda lärosätena bidrog med handledning och finansiering under avhandlingsprojeket.

In recent years, growing interest towards foods produced from alternative agricultural practices have been seen among consumers. This thesis is an investigation of consumer understanding and attitudes towards information regarding sustainable, organic and local foods and agricultural practices and how such information could affect consumer food product expectation and sensory acceptability. Using internet questionnaires constructed based on common definitions and popular beliefs, 172 primary grocery shoppers were surveyed regarding their perception concerning information related to these alternative agricultural practices and foods. Results obtained from statistical analyses revealed the existence of various dimensions concerning the understanding and attitudes towards these concepts. Segmentations based on their understanding and attitudes towards these concepts were also found within the sampled population. Furthermore, by utilizing the theory of assimilation and contrast, a three-part sensory study was conducted, with 49 consumers from the Niagara Peninsula, to examine the impact of information regarding production methods (organic vs. conventional) and product origins (local vs. imported) on consumer expectation and acceptability of yellow peaches. Despite of some peach samples being under-ripe, a significant positive labeling effect has been observed in hedonic rating and perceived intensity of sensory characteristics when the joint organic and local label was presented. A similar labeling effect, however, was not observed in monetary valuation of willingness to pay. / New Directions Research Program / Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs

This SSHRC and Pacific Leaders funded thesis summarizes participatory action research conducted in El Salvador between January 2008 and April 2009. This research resulted in a $355,000 proposal to the Canadian International Development Agency for a sustainable agriculture research and education centre in canton Agua Blanca, Morazán, El Salvador. The project is proposed by Canadian NGO, Rainbow of Hope for Children, in partnership with Salvadoran NGO, Fundahmer. Fundahmer owns 9.8 hectares of land in Agua Blanca. The researcher analysed practices at an existing Rainbow agriculture project in Izalco, and identified options for Agua Blanca by defining project goals and objectives, conducting a risk assessment, describing proposed centre activities, quantifying beneficiaries, assessing funding requirements, and developing performance measures. Funding was rejected, citing six sections that required additional information for second submission: sector and regional context, sustainability, gender, beneficiaries, performance measures, and environmental impacts. Seven recommendations are included to move project forward.

Support for sustainable agriculture by farmers and consumers is increasing as environmental and socio-economic issues rise due to more intensive farm practices. Site-specific crop management is an important component of sutainable agriculture, within which remote sensing can play an integral role. Field and image data were acquired over a farm in Saskatchewan as part of a national research project to demonstrate the advantages of site-specific agriculture for farmers. This research involved the estimation of crop biophysical parameters from airborne hyperspectral imagery using Spectral Mixture Analysis (SMA), a relatively new sub-pixel scale image processing method that derives the fraction of sunlit canopy, soil and shadow that is contributing to a pixel's relectance. SMA of three crop types (peas, wheat and canola) performed slightly better than conventional vegetation indices in predicting leaf area index (LAI) and biomass using Probe-1 imagery acquired early in the growing season. Other potential advantages for SMA were also indentified, and it was conclude that future research is warranted to assess the full potential of SMA in a multi-temporal sense throughout the growing season. / xiv, 194 leaves : ill. (some col.) ; 29 cm.

Requirements for the development of sustainable farm systems include the generation of site-specific management practices and heightened levels of awareness and empowerment within the farming community. The current model of technology development and transfer does not adequately facilitate the development of these characteristics. This study elaborates an alternative, participatory approach for agricultural extension, and presents the experiences of a group consisting of six farmers and a university co-research team, who employed this approach over a 17-month period to develop more ecologically sustainable farm systems. / The stages of a "process of development model" are: General Systems Description, Convergence, Implementation, Exchange, and Monitoring and Evaluation. This model is proposed as a means to expand the potential of participatory extension strategies to facilitate the development of sustainable agricultural systems. The primary implications of the participatory extension approach for the future roles of agricultural extension workers are outlined.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) represent an ancient and critical symbiotic partner with the majority of land plants, understood to promote ecosystem productivity and biodiversity and are also important to ecologically sound land management practices. The fungus is thought to be over 400 million years old, and due to a lack of an observable sexual cycle, has been placed into a select group of eukaryotes called 'ancient asexuals', which seemingly defy evolutionary theory by persisting for an extended period of time in the absence of sexual reproduction. Recently however, molecular evidence has accumulated which may suggest AMF harbour a cryptic sexual cycle. In the first chapter of this thesis, entitled "Searching for clues of sexual reproduction in the genomes of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi", I review evidence supporting this notion of a cryptic sexual cycle in AMF which includes: the presence of recombinational events, meiosis-specific genes as well as mating-specific transcription factors called SexM and SexP of the MATA_HMG protein family which are otherwise found only in the genomes of sexual fungi. In the second chapter, I present the main research of my MSc work where I used bioinformatic, population genetic, molecular and experimental approaches to build on this existing evidence of sexuality in AMF. These findings include the presence of a dramatically expanded family of MAT-HMG genes which are present in several isolates of the Rhizophagus irregularis and also harbour significant allele variation amongst these isolates, some of which resembles variation expected at MAT-genes in other fungi. Q-RT-PCR procedures revealed that at least some of these genes tend to increase in expression during crosses of R. irregularis isolates. We also uncovered the presence of a unique genomic region where at least three of these genes are located in tandem. Finally, several tests of recombination support the presence of intraisolate as well as interisolate recombination events occurring between these MAT-HMG genes.

The effect of management practices used by smallholder farmers to improve soil quality and increase maize yield was examined in an 80 ha. micro-watershed of central Malawi. Because of the complexity inherent in smallholder farming systems, this research proposed the combination of participatory methods with analytical techniques developed in field ecology, such as multivariate and spatial analysis. During a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), farmers identified factors potentially influencing soil quality and maize yield. One hundred and seventy-six (176) plots were located in twenty-nine (29) fields and characterized for management practices and biophysical characteristics. Soil samples were collected at each plot and analysed for a suite of properties. The maize yield was measured for both 1996--97 and 1997--98 seasons. A formal survey was used to gather information on household characteristics. Results showed that management practices that were promoted by a previous extension project, such as alley cropping and the planting of grass on contour ridges, were strongly correlated and found mainly in fields located closer to house compounds. Farmers with a higher proportion of their land under wetland gardens tended to use less agroforestry. Food security was associated with households that were able to purchase inorganic fertilizers, had larger landholding size, and owned livestock and woodlots. The effect of management practices on maize yield and soil quality was partially confounded with characteristics of the plot, such as slope, degradation level, number of years under cultivation or pest damage. Higher maize yield was observed in plots that were better managed, as expressed by the combination of different management practices, lower pest incidence, fewer erosion signs and higher soil fertility. Some positive effects of alley cropping on soil quality were observed in plots that were cultivated for a longer period and located on flatter land. This study demo

In the semi - arid Mediterranean - type environments of southern Australia, soil and water resources largely determine crop productivity and ultimately the sustainability of farming systems within the region. The development of sustainable farming systems is a constantly evolving process, of which cropping sequences ( rotations ) are an essential component. This thesis focused on two important soil resources, soil water and nitrogen, and studied the effects of different crop sequences on the dynamic of these resources within current farming systems practiced on the upper Eyre Peninsula of South Australia. The hypothesis tested was that : continuous cropping may alter N dynamics but will not necessarily alter water use efficiency in semi - arid Mediterranean - type environments. Continuous cropping altered N - dynamics ; increases in inorganic N were dependent on the inclusion of a legume in the cropping sequence. Associated with the increase in inorganic N supply was a decrease in WUE by the subsequent wheat crop. Overall, estimates of water use efficiency, a common index of the sustainability of farming systems, in this study concur with reported values for the semi - arid Murray - Mallee region of southern Australia and other semi - arid environments worldwide. Soil water balance and determination of WUE for a series of crop sequences in this thesis suggests that the adoption of continuous cropping may increase WUE and confer a yield benefit compared to crop sequences including a legume component in this environment. No differences in total water use ( ET ) at anthesis or maturity were measured for wheat regardless of the previous crop. Soil evaporation ( E [subscript s] ) was significantly affected by crop canopy development, measured as LAI from tillering until anthesis in 2002, however total seasonal E [subscript s] did not differ between crop sequences. Indeed in environments with infrequent rainfall, such as the upper Eyre Peninsula, soil evaporation may be water - limited rather than energy limited and the potential benefits from greater LAI and reduced E [subscript s] are less. Greater shoot dry matter production and LAI due to an enhanced inorganic N supply for wheat after legumes, and to a lesser degree wheat after canola, relative to continuous cereal crop sequences resulted in increases in WUE calculated at anthesis, as reported by others. Nonetheless the increase in WUE was not sustained due to limitations on available soil water capacity caused by soil physical and chemical constraints. Access to more soil water at depth ( > 0.8m ) through additional root growth was unavailable due to soil chemical limitations. More importantly, the amount of plant available water within the ' effective rooting depth ' ( 0 - 0.8m ) was significantly reduced when soil physical factors were accounted for using the integral water capacity ( IWC ) concept. The difference between the magnitude of the plant available water capacity and the integral water capacity was approximately 90mm within the ' effective rooting depth ' when measured at field capacity, suggesting that the ability of the soil to store water and buffer against periodic water deficit was severely limited. The IWC concept offers a method of evaluating the physical quality of soils and the limitations that these physical properties, viz. aeration, soil strength and hydraulic conductivity, impose on the water supply capacity of the soil. The inability of the soil to maintain a constant supply of water to satisfy maximal transpiration efficiency combined with large amounts of N resulted in ' haying off ', and reduced grain yields. A strong negative linear relationship was established between WUE of grain production by wheat and increasing soil NO [subscript 3] - N at sowing in 2000 and 2002, which conflicts with results from experiments in semi - arid Mediterranean climates in other regions of the world where applications of N increased water use efficiency of grain. Estimates of proportional dependence on N [subscript 2] fixation ( % N [subscript dfa] ) for annual medics and vetch from this study ( 43 - 80 % ) are comparable to others for environments in southern Australia ( < 450mm average annual rainfall ). Such estimates of fixation are considered low ( < 65 % ) to adequate ( 65 - 80 % ). Nevertheless, the amount of plant available N present at sowing for subsequent wheat crops, and the occurrence of ' haying off ', suggests that WUE is not N - limited per se, as implied by some reports, but constrained by the capacity of a soil to balance the co - limiting factors of water and nitrogen. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2005.

Doctor of Philosophy / Precision Agriculture (PA) strives towards holistic production and environmental management. A fundamental research challenge is the continuous expansion of ideas about how PA can contribute to sustainable agriculture. Some associated pragmatic research challenges include quantification of spatio-temporal variation of crop yield; crop growth simulation modelling within a PA context and; evaluating long-term financial and environmental outcomes from site-specific crop management (SSCM). In Chapter 1 literature about managing whole farms with a mind towards sustainability was reviewed. Alternative agricultural systems and concepts including systems thinking, agro-ecology, mosaic farming and PA were investigated. With respect to environmental outcomes it was found that PA research is relatively immature. There is scope to thoroughly evaluate PA from a long-term, whole-farm environmental and financial perspective. Comparatively, the emphasis of PA research on managing spatial variability offers promising and innovative ways forward, particularly in terms of designing new farming systems. It was found that using crop growth simulation modelling in a PA context is potentially very useful. Modelling high-resolution spatial and temporal variability with current simulation models poses a number of immediate research issues. This research focused on three whole farms located in Australia that grow predominantly grains without irrigation. These study sites represent three important grain growing regions within Australia. These are northern NSW, north-east Victoria and South Australia. Note-worthy environmental and climatic differences between these regions such as rainfall timing, soil type and topographic features were outlined in Chapter 2. When considering adoption of SSCM, it is essential to understand the impact of temporal variation on the potential value of managing spatial variation. Quantifying spatiotemporal variation of crop yield serves this purpose; however, this is a conceptually and practically challenging undertaking. A small number of previous studies have found that the magnitude of temporal variation far exceeds that of spatial variation. Chapter 3 of this thesis dealt with existing and new approaches quantifying the relationship between spatial and temporal variability in crop yield. It was found that using pseudo cross variography to obtain spatial and temporal variation ‘equivalents’ is a promising approach to quantitatively comparing spatial and temporal variation. The results from this research indicate that more data in the temporal dimension is required to enable thorough analysis using this approach. This is particularly relevant when questioning the suitability of SSCM. Crop growth simulation modelling offers PA a number of benefits such as the ability to simulate a considerable volume of data in the temporal dimension. A dominant challenge recognised within the PA/modelling literature is the mismatch between the spatial resolution of point-based model output (and therefore input) and the spatial resolution of information demanded by PA. This culminates into questions about the conceptual model underpinning the simulation model and the practicality of using point-based models to simulate spatial variability. iii The ability of point-based models to simulate appropriate spatial and temporal variability of crop yield and the importance of soil available water capacity (AWC) for these simulations were investigated in Chapter 4. The results indicated that simulated spatial variation is low compared to some previously reported spatial variability of real yield data for some climate years. It was found that the structure of spatial yield variation was directly related to the structure of the AWC and interactions between AWC and climate. It is apparent that varying AWC spatially is a reasonable starting point for modelling spatial variation of crop yield. A trade-off between capturing adequate spatio-temporal variation of crop yield and the inclusion of realistically obtainable model inputs is identified. A number of practical solutions to model parameterisation for PA purposes are identified in the literature. A popular approach is to minimise the number of simulations required. Another approach that enables modelling at every desired point across a study area involves taking advantage of high-resolution yield information from a number of years to estimate site-specific soil properties with the inverse use of a crop growth simulation model. Inverse meta-modelling was undertaken in Chapter 5 to estimate AWC on 10- metre grids across each of the study farms. This proved to be an efficient approach to obtaining high-resolution AWC information at the spatial extent of whole farms. The AWC estimates proved useful for yield prediction using simple linear regression as opposed to application within a complex crop growth simulation model. The ability of point-based models to simulate spatial variation was re-visited in Chapter 6 with respect to the exclusion of lateral water movement. The addition of a topographic component into the simple point-based yield prediction models substantially improved yield predictions. The value of these additions was interpreted using coefficients of determination and comparing variograms for each of the yield prediction components. A result consistent with the preceding chapter is the importance of further validating the yield prediction models with further yield data when it becomes available. Finally, some whole-farm management scenarios using SSCM were synthesised in Chapter 7. A framework that enables evaluation of the long-term (50 years) farm outcomes soil carbon sequestration, nitrogen leaching and crop yield was established. The suitability of SSCM across whole-farms over the long term was investigated and it was found that the suitability of SSCM is confined to certain fields. This analysis also enabled identification of parts of the farms that are the least financially and environmentally viable. SSCM in conjunction with other PA management strategies is identified as a promising approach to long-term and whole-farm integrated management.