Dr. Samuel Sam O.C. (February 19, 1925—December 18, 2007) was a traditionally trained orator of the Tsartlip Nation, located in the territory of WSÁNEĆ (Saanich), Vancouver Island. He spoke the two Central Coast Salish languages of SENĆOŦEN (dialect of Northern Straits, Coast Salish) and Hul’q’umi’num’ (dialect of Halkomelem, Coast Salish). In the summer of 2006, Dr. Sam and I began the work of documenting some of his knowledge of the mythology, history, and people that made up his community. This thesis presents two excerpts from these recordings. The first is a traditional WSÁNEĆ Flood Story in SENĆOŦEN that tells of the source of the name of the territory and its people. The second is an autobiographical tale told in Hul’q’umi’num’ that describes Dr. Sam’s life as a young man, working as a migrant farmer with his wife and children. While collaborating with Dr. Sam to translate and render his stories into text, it became clear that the loss of contextual information surrounding them would be a hindrance to their appreciation and even understanding. This thesis discusses the role of context as a background against which the texts can be viewed. This context includes information about Dr. Sam’s motivations for sharing his knowledge, historical information about him and his nation, description of the traditional role of oratory on the West Coast, and about the decisions made in the process of rendering the oral genre into text. Coast Salish oratory is a traditional medium for transmission of information, knowledge, and moral teaching. It is as well a beautiful and complex oral art form, rich with stylistic features. The constitutive device of the oratory appears to be that of parallelism, whereby couplet lines and themes are ordered into structures ranging from simple to complex. Dr. Sam’s oratory is rich with examples of many features and parallel structures which can be found in neighbouring Coast Salish texts. / Graduate

The price of urban and suburban land in most of the Western World has been increasing at a particularly-rapid rate. In fact, land value increases appear to be consistenty and disproportionately greater than the rise in either general consumer prices or costs of residential construction. Raw land values are an important element influencing both the quality and quantity of housing made available, and as such, constitute a relevant social concern. Furthermore, land values, to a certain extent dictate the type of development that an urban area undergoes. Land speculators have frequently been blamed for causing, or at least contributing to, not only these price increases but also the sprawl-like, pattern of development so often associated with urban peripheral areas. This thesis attempts to test the validity of these claims by analyzing data from a specific inter-temporal study of land uses price changes and land values in an urban fringe environment. The community selected for this study was the Municipality of Saanich, which is located immediately north of the City of Victoria, British Columbia. Over 2600 separate properties were sampled, with considerable amounts of data for each – including such inputs as the changing selling prices, holding periods and development information -- that were obtained through the municipal assessment roles and the searching of titles in the land registry office. The time horizon selected was 21 years (1949-1970) in order to encompass several stages of business activity. A special computer program using elements of multi-variate analysis assembled the various inputs into a workable format, whence portions of the data could be further analyzed and compared. It is suggested that the level of transactions and the increasing average raw land values have been influenced by both public and private actions in response to the continuing urbanization of the Victoria area. This study further contends that land speculation per se has not exerted a significant influence either on land prices or on the actual pattern of development in the study area. Population pressures and rising levels of per capita incomes are suggested as being factors of more significance in this context. / Business, Sauder School of / Real Estate Division / Graduate

Varved, anoxic sediments in Saanich Inlet, British Columbia, are formed by the annual cycle of summer deposition of diatom frustules and winter inputs of terrigenous material derived from land runoff. The objective of this study was to sample the varve record in order to develop a palaeoceanographic history of the Inlet. Box-cores of varved sediments were collected from Finlayson Arm, Saanich Inlet. The cores were quick, frozen upon recovery, to preserve the laminae, were subsequently sectioned and X-radiographs of the sections prepared. The varves were individually sampled and analysed for their diatom assemblages together with carbon, carbonate, major and minor element concentrations and ²¹⁰Pb activity. The chronology of a representative core determined by ²¹⁰Pb was inconsistent with that determined by varve counting. The geochemical data indicated that the upper 15cm of the core had a distinct elemental composition and a lower porosity that indicated a changed sedimentation rate. It also appeared that around 20 years of sediment had been lost from the core-top. The upper sediment contains a carbonate increase linked to a dust dump from a local cement plant which occurred between 1960-1963. In the lower section of the core, both the diatom and the geochemical data indicate seasonal variation expected from the formation of annual varves. However, a well constrained chronology cannot be obtained for this core because of the non-steady state sedimentation. This makes the interpretation of inter-varve variations in the light of regional climatic records impossible. Nevertheless, a change in production on a cycle of approximately 10-15 years is evident and this study provides conclusions that will be useful to future palaeoceanographic investigations on longer cores from a part of the Inlet where sedimentation is more constant. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

Small, locally-marketing farms are garnering more attention with regard to their ability to supply their regions with food. Their economic viability is called into question because if they cannot sustain themselves financially, they cannot be relied upon as an alternative food system. This paper looks at economic viability and ask the question “how are farmers making it work?” Data is based on a 25 interviews with farmers on the Saanich Peninsula, British Columbia, Canada. The decision to continue running a farm year to year is complex. The answer to valuing these farms may come by looking at the productivity of the farms, their many services to the environment and to their communities, rather than just the financial picture. Farmers are finding ways to retain more of the value of their productivity from transactions with customers. Navigating the regulatory environment remains a challenge. The paper concludes with policy recommendations. / Graduate

Comparative ecology and interspecific competition were examined between two sympatric congeners, Sebastes caurinus Richardson 1845 (copper rockfish) and S. maliger (Jordan and Gilbert 1880) (quillback rockfish) in Saanich Inlet, British Columbia, Canada, from 1986-1990. Ecological profiles were constructed through analyses of depth distribution, habitat and species associations, activities, feeding habits, gut allometry, growth, and reproduction. Interspecific competition between copper and quillback rockfish was examined by experimentally manipulating the densities of one or the other species on rocky reefs in Saanich Inlet where they were sympatric. The Pisces IV submersible was used to survey the distribution of rockfish in relatively deep-water (21-140 m) in Saanich Inlet. Copper and quillback rockfish were sympatric in water depths of 21-65 m. They occurred in association with one another the majority of the time (>90%) and their densities were greatest over areas of complex substrate. Size of copper and quillback rockfish was positively correlated with increased depth, primarily due to the absence of small fish in deeper waters. Both species were observed most frequently perched on open substrate or hovering in the water column. Copper rockfish were observed swimming more frequently than quillback rockfish. Copper and quillback rockfish primarily consumed demersal crustaceans throughout the year. Copper rockfish consumed a greater proportion of pelagic fishes than quillback rockfish, whereas quillback rockfish had a greater proportion of pelagic crustaceans in their diet. Levins' (1968) measure of niche breadth of the diet (by mass), as standardized by Hurlbert (1978), was narrow (0.19-0.20) to moderate (0.32-0.51) for quillback and copper rockfish respectively, during spring, summer, and fall. In the winter it was extremely narrow (0.02) for both species due to their feeding predominantly on one prey type, juvenile herring (Clupea harengus) . The Simplified Morisita Index of niche overlap (Horn 1966) in feeding habits (by mass) was relatively high (>0.55) throughout the year, and particularly during the winter (0.99). This high niche overlap in the winter occurred when large schools of juvenile herring were available in the environment and were probably not a limited resource. Extensive niche overlap between copper and quillback rockfish may therefore indicate an abundance of a shared resource rather than competition for the resource. Copper and quillback rockfish consumed the greatest quantity of food during the winter when feeding on juvenile herring, although quillback rockfish consumed significantly less food mass than copper rockfish in the winter. A greater proportion of quillback rockfish were collected with food in their stomachs during the spring and summer, when the numerically dominant food items were pelagic crustaceans. The importance of fish prey in the diets of both copper and quillback rockfish increased with size. Copper rockfish had a shorter intestine and larger stomach relative to similar-sized quillback rockfish. This suggested that the gastrointestinal tract of copper rockfish was better suited to holding and digesting fish and larger crustaceans than quillback rockfish, an observation consistent with differences in their feeding habits. Copper and quillback rockfish had similar growth patterns with no readily identifiable species-specific and sex-specific differences. Both sexes of both species attained asymptotic lengths of 30-31 cm total length and had similar growth coefficients (0.141-0.187). Within each sex, copper rockfish had a smaller increase in mass per unit of body length than quillback rockfish, indicative of a more pelagic lifestyle for copper rockfish. Estimated lengths at first and 100% sexual maturity for female and male copper and quillback rockfish were similar. Male copper rockfish were ripe, and potentially inseminated females, in January and February. Female copper rockfish were found to be carrying fertilized eggs in April and May, and gave birth to their young primarily in June. The reproductive cycle of quillback rockfish preceded that of copper rockfish by approximately one month, with parturition for quillback rockfish occurring mainly in May. The fecundity of copper and quillback rockfish was similar, with a 30-cm fish giving birth to approximately 90,000 young. Visceral fat cycles of mature female copper and quillback rockfish were complementary to their cycles of gonad maturation and increases in gonad size, indicating that they use visceral fat stores as a source of energy for maturation of their eggs and nourishment of their developing young. Visceral fat cycles of mature males were mainly coincident with the maturation and size increase of their gonads, indicating that they did not use visceral fat reserves in the maturation of their gonads. Male rockfish secondarily may have used their fat reserves as an energy source during the period when they were ripe, perhaps for mating activities. Visceral fat accumulation and dissipation in immature males and females appeared to be primarily related to periods of feeding. Interspecific competition between copper and quillback rockfish was asymmetrical, seasonal, and transitory, based on experimental manipulations of the densities of the congeners in natural populations. Copper rockfish did not have a competitive effect on quillback rockfish, but quillback rockfish had a weak competitive effect on copper rockfish. This effect was apparent only during the fall, was strongest in the fall immediately following the density manipulations, and appeared to weaken in the subsequent fall season. The seasonal competitive effect may have been caused by copper rockfish moving onto the study reefs (18-31 m depth) from shallower waters (<20 m) during the fall and winter, creating a short-term 'ecological crunch' in which food or space resources were limited. Overall, comparative ecological profiles of copper and quillback rockfish exhibited a large degree of overlap. Differences observed between them were small but consistently indicated that copper rockfish had a more pelagic lifestyle than quillback rockfish. The otherwise high degree of similarity between the two congeners, however, did not translate into sustained interspecific competition. Ecological theory purporting a major role for interspecific competition in structuring fish communities was therefore not supported by experimental manipulations of population densities of deep-subtidal, temperate zone rockfishes. The asymmetrical, seasonal, and transitory occurrence of weak interspecific competition demonstrated that competition between these rockfish species is dynamic, and cannot account for the pattern of species association. Alternative hypotheses based on the importance of intraspecific competition, predation, or environmental variability must therefore be considered. / Graduate

During some years Neocalanus plumchrus overwinters in Saanich Inlet while in other years they are absent from the fjord (Harrison et al., 1983). The cause of this variation is not known but the annual development of anoxic conditions followed by an intrusion of dense, oxygenated water, was suspected to influence their distribution and abundance. Vertical and horizontal haul samples collected from Saanich Inlet indicated the overwintering population in 1985 (September 1985 to March 1986) was sparse; in September 1986 the population of N. plumchrus was comparably low. In the spring and summer, N. plumchrus is introduced from the Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca Strait, and in some years may arise from reproduction within the inlet. So few adults were collected at the three stations in Saanich Inlet in January-March 1986 (<0.20 m⁻³) that their potential contribution to the spring population was considered negligible. Decline in the overwintering population in September 1985 and 1986 appears to be correlated with the occurrence of an extensive deep water renewal. The distribution of N. plumchrus during early stages of their deep water migration (June to August), is influenced by the low oxygen concentrations in the bottom of the inlet (i.e. 0.10-0.30 mL L⁻¹). During the renewal, copepods occurred above the oxygen minimum (75 m) possibly due to their displacement or their avoidance of the low oxygen zone. Subsequently, they were exposed to tidal transport out of the inlet and perhaps to increased predation. On two occasions in which N. plumchrus was present during the winter in Saanich Inlet (1969 & 1974), a high volume of dense water intruded, disrupting the copepod layer during the mixing of the two water masses. Even though a greater volume of water left the inlet some of the copepods could have remained in the water, below sill depth. Neocalanus plumchrus successfully overwinters and reproduces in Sechelt Inlet which is well-oxygenated but has a very shallow sill (15 m) that 'locks' the copepods into the inlet. The fifth copepodite stages also occupy deeper depths in Sechelt Inlet than in Saanich Inlet, even though the bottom depths are comparable. In low oxygen tolerance experiments many factors such as the period of captivity, and the region of origin (i.e. Saanich Inlet versus the Strait of Georgia) caused variable results. Although the minimum oxygen level tolerable during their migration could not be determined, N. plumchrus tolerated levels as low as 0.56 mL L⁻¹ (12% mortality). Sediment trap samples indicate that a massive die off could not account for the loss of N. plumchrus from Saanich Inlet. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

This thesis presents improvements to a method for measuring the production of biogenic silica (bSiO2) by diatoms, a group of microscopic algae with siliceous cell walls (frustules) that dominate the marine cycling of silicon (Si) and account for a significant proportion of global marine primary productivity. Using the fluorescent dye PDMPO, diatom bSiO2 can be labeled as it is produced and then quantified using fluorometry to determine community-wide bSiO2 production. A distinct advantage of PDMPO over more traditional tracers of bSiO2 production is that the combination of measurements of PDMPO by fluorometry and by fluorescence microscopy allows for the quantification of cell (and thus taxa) specific bSiO2 production within a mixed community. However, the robustness of PDMPO as a quantitative tracer of diatom bSiO2 production has not been sufficiently investigated. To address this, experiments were conducted both in the lab, and at two field locations where diatoms are known to be abundant, namely the continental shelf off the west coast of Vancouver Island, and Saanich Inlet, a highly productive fjord located on southern Vancouver Island. Laboratory culture experiments demonstrated that concentrations of PDMPO >500 nmol L-1 reduced growth rate in the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana, and affected the Si:PDMPO ratio of incorporation. The relationship between SiO2 and PDMPO incorporation was significantly affected by diatom species, though this effect was small (8%) when cells were lysed. From these experiments, a Si:PDMPO incorporation ratio of 4200 ± 380:1 was determined, which predicted 30% more bSiO2 production for PDMPO incorporation than previous studies, and better agreed with bSiO2 production rates determined using established methods in Saanich Inlet. However, bSiO2 production rates were over-estimated by the PDMPO method when rates were less than 1 µmol L-1 d-1. In a few cases, this occurred when dinoflagellates were numerically dominant, but for the majority of samples, dinoflagellates were low in abundance, and over-estimation by PDMPO may be related to low dissolved Si(OH)4 concentration. Protocols for quantifying PDMPO fluorescence by microscopy were optimized by using a low numerical aperture microscope objective. Additionally, measurements of fluorescence intensity were calibrated using a fluorescent microscope slide as a standard, which served to correct for unevenness of illumination across the field of view. With these protocol modifications, quantification of PDMPO by microscopy agreed with PDMPO measured by fluorometry. When PDMPO was measured by microscopy in the field, the contribution of diatom taxa to PDMPO fluorescence differed from their contribution to cell numbers. In many cases this was due to large diatom taxa producing more bSiO2 per cell than smaller taxa. However, much of the difference between cell numbers and PDMPO fluorescence was not explained by differences in cell size. This suggests that the diatom taxa had different specific bSiO2 production rates, which could be estimated using PDMPO. This thesis highlights the strength of the PDMPO tracer for understanding diatom community dynamics. The use of PDMPO should allow the relationship between diatom community composition, growth and productivity to be better illuminated in the oceans. / Graduate / 0416 / jelong@uvic.ca

This dissertation provides the first comprehensive analysis of the phonology of vowels in SENĆOŦEN (Salish). Evidence from various phonological and phonetic phenomena are brought together to support a proposal that there are two types of phonological vowels in SENĆOŦEN (full vowels versus schwa). Understanding the phonological representations and distributions of these two types of vowels contributes a unique perspective on how words are built in the language. The study contributes to linguistic theory by showing how the interplay between faithfulness to morphological form and markedness conditions on ideal surface prosodic shape triggers a series of vowel processes, such as deletion, epenthesis, harmony and reduction, which make it difficult to trace back to the original morphological form. In taking steps towards unraveling the complicated interaction between morphology and phonology in the language and providing insights crucial to an understanding of the underlying forms of roots and suffixes, the dissertation contributes to pedagogy by making it easier for language learners to figure out for themselves how words are related to one another. The dissertation is organized into seven chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the language situating it within the context of research on other Salish languages. Chapter 2 lays out the theoretical assumptions about SENĆOŦEN that are adopted in this dissertation. Chapter 3 argues for a phonological contrast between two types of vowels in SENĆOŦEN and argues against the notion that consonants bear phonological weight in SENĆOŦEN. Chapter 4 presents a preliminary acoustic analysis of vowel length and quality. Chapter 5 argues that syllables in SENĆOŦEN are basically simple and that the phonological environments when they are not simple are highly constrained and predictable. Chapter 6 argues that patterns of zero-schwa alternations found in complex morphological structures are accounted for by wellformed foot structure. Chapter 7 is a conclusion. / Graduate

The evolution of the sulphur content of humic substances extracted from a near-shore sediment core was investigated. Special attention was taken to avoid S contamination of the humic materials during sample handling and extraction. The S/C ratios increased continuously with depth to values which strongly suggest S addition to the humic matrix during early diagenesis by reactions between organic matter and H₂S or its oxidation products. The light isotopic composition of this organic sulphur supports this view; however, subsequent isotopic exchange has obscured the mechanism initially involved. Since a large fraction of the enrichment occurred above the sulphidic zone, redox boundaries, such as the interface of anoxic microniches within the more oxidized zones, or the sulphidic/suboxic boundary of the sediment column, must have been important sites for S addition. The influence of sulphur enrichment on the complexing capacity of humic materials was also investigated, and it was shown that S-addition increases significantly the number of sites on which Cu is irreversibly bound. Iodine is characteristically enriched at the surface of hemipelagic and nearshore sediments deposited under oxygenated conditions. In such sediments, bulk I/Corg ratios usually decrease with depth to values which are characteristic of anoxic sediments, reflecting a preferential release of iodine during early diagenesis. There is some debate as to whether sedimentary iodine is associated with the iron oxyhydroxide phase or with the organic fraction, and whether the decrease in I/Corg with depth is due to the dissolution of the iron oxyhydroxides or the decomposition of labile organic matter. In this study, it is shown that in a surficial hemipelagic sediment sample and in a nearshore sediment core iodine is mainly associated with the organic fraction and, moreover, that humic substances are involved in the surficial iodine enrichment. Laboratory experiments on the uptake and release of iodine by and from sedimentary humic substances also suggest a mechanism whereby humic materials reduce iodate at the sediment/water interface to an electrophilic iodine species which further reacts with the organic matter to produce iodinated organic molecules. During burial, this excess iodine could be displaced from the organic matrix by nucleophiles such as sulphide ions or thiosulphate, thus providing a possible explanation for the decrease in I/corg ratio with depth observed in many nearshore and hemipelagic sediments. Bulk metal concentrations were measured in the sediments of Saanich Inlet in an attempt to establish the occurrence of trace metal enrichments in the anoxic central basin. Ba, Ni, V, Cr, Zn, Pb, Cu, and Mo were found to be enriched in the anoxic ooze over the possible contributions from lithogenous sources. Spatial and seasonal variations in the chemical composition of the settling particulates collected with interceptor traps gave further indications of the mode of incorporation of these metals. Biogenic Ba and Cr appeared to be associated with opaline silica, although alternative explanations are also possible, particularly for Ba. Zinc seemed to be added to the sediment essentially in association with planktonic materials, while Cu required an additional source directly linked to the anoxic environment. Similarly, Ni, V, and Mo were added to the anoxic sediments by reactions occurring at the sediment-water interface. In the nearshore environment studied here, these metals were not associated to any significant extent with planktonic materials, particularly Ni and Mo. Of all the elements analyzed, Mo showed the largest enrichment in the anoxic sediments of Saanich Inlet. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

Aspects of the biology of the sepiolid squid Rossia pacifica Berry were studied from specimens obtained by otter trawling at Cape Lazo Gully and Saanich Inlet, British Columbia. Temperature, salinity, and sediment size at Cape Lazo Gully varied from 7.18°C to 11.00°C, 28.01 °/oo to 30.21 °/oo, and from less than l00μd to over 250μd respectively. Living specimens in the laboratory exhibited color changes from dark red-brown to opalescent grey-green. They did not mimic the color of the substrate. Comparisons of the morphometric indices of R. pacifica with other species of this genus showed differences in some indices but not in others. The arm formula is inconsistent, the most common being 3>2>4>1 and 3>2=4>1. The lower beak differs from that of R. maarosoma by having a "tooth" on its shoulder. In an aquarium Rossia spent most of its time resting on the bottom either in a horizontal position or with the anterior end elevated. The squid usually formed a depression in the sandy bottom to rest in. In some instances they threw sand onto their backs. Fish were caught with the tentacles and held with the arms while being eaten. Stomach analysis revealed that crustacea were present in 86.6% of the stomachs that contained food, while fish were present in 16.6%. Shrimp formed the largest portion of the crustacea in the diet. Bivalve molluscs, squid, and ostracods were occasionally found. Proportions of crustacea to fish in the diet were higher in smaller squid and decreased in larger animals. Seasonal variations in the diet were correlated with the biomass of shrimp in the area where the squid were collected; when a low biomass of shrimp was present the squid had a higher proportion of fish in their diet. The female R. pacifica are slightly larger than the males of the same age and grow to a larger size than do the males. The male and female reproductive systems are described. Gonad indices show that the ovaries and nidamental glands begin to mature when the females have a dorsal mantle length of approximately 24.0 mm. Spermatophores were not found in males smaller than 22 mm mantle length. The proportion of males containing spermatophores was 9% at 22 mm and increased through 17% at 24 mm, 50% at 26 mm to 90% at 28 mm. During mating the male attaches to the female from below by means of his second, third, and fourth pairs of arms. Spermatophores are transferred into the dorsal region of the female's pallial cavity by his dorsal, hectocotylized arms. The sex ratio of males to females found at Cape Lazo Gully was 1.2:1.0. Spawning occurs in the fall with the most active period occurring from August through October. This may be correlated with an increase in the water temperature, during this time. The squid have a life span of one year, at the end of which they mate, spawn, and die. / Graduate