Introdução: O conhecimento sobre a concentração de fluoreto nas águas de consumo humano é importante para a prevenção e controle da cárie e da fluorose dentária nas populações. Objetivo: Descrever as características dos estudos e os resultados por eles produzidos sobre monitoramento dos teores de fluoreto nas águas de consumo humano publicados em revistas científicas especializadas no período de 2008 a 2012. Método: Foi realizada uma revisão sistemática da literatura científica na qual foram incluídos estudos na forma de artigos que apresentassem temática centrada no monitoramento da concentração do fluoreto na água de consumo humano. Os estudos foram identificados por busca bibliográfica nas bases de dados: LILACS, PUBMED/MEDLINE e EMBASE. Artigos, com qualquer tipo de desenho metodológico, publicados nos idiomas português, inglês e espanhol, foram incluídos. Resultados: Quarenta e oito artigos foram incluídos para a extração das características e resultados referentes à pergunta da pesquisa. Conclusão: A atividade de monitoramento estava articulada à vigilância como ação do Estado em dezoito estudos (37,5%). O método eletrométrico foi usado em 39 (81%) estudos. Apenas dois estudos utilizaram o método da Alizarina, sugerindo-se o seu desuso. A classificação em categorias de tipo \"adequado\" e \"inadequado\" (dicotômica), a qual reduz as opções de interpretação e atribuição de significado às características das amostras, predominou na apresentação dos resultados. / Introduction: Knowledge on the concentration of fluoride in water for human consumption is important for the prevention and control of dental caries and dental fluorosis in populations. Objective: To describe the characteristics of the studies and the results on monitoring of fluoride levels in water for human consumption published in specialized journals in the period 2008-2012. Methods: A systematic review of the scientific literature was performed. Only articles on monitoring of fluoride concentration in drinking water were included. Studies were identified by literature searching in databases: LILACS, PUBMED / MEDLINE and EMBASE. Articles with any type of methodological design, published in Portuguese, English and Spanish were included. Results: Forty-eight articles were included for the extraction of features and results related to the research question. Conclusion: The monitoring activity was articulated to the surveillance as an action provided by the State in eighteen studies (37,5%). The electrometric method was used in 39 (81%) studies. Only two studies used the method of Alizarin, suggesting its disuse. The dichotomous categorization \"appropriate\" and \"in appropriate\" which reduces the options of interpretation and attribution of meaning to the sample characteristics predominated in the presentation of the results.

Introdução: O conhecimento sobre a concentração de fluoreto nas águas de consumo humano é importante para a prevenção e controle da cárie e da fluorose dentária nas populações. Objetivo: Descrever as características dos estudos e os resultados por eles produzidos sobre monitoramento dos teores de fluoreto nas águas de consumo humano publicados em revistas científicas especializadas no período de 2008 a 2012. Método: Foi realizada uma revisão sistemática da literatura científica na qual foram incluídos estudos na forma de artigos que apresentassem temática centrada no monitoramento da concentração do fluoreto na água de consumo humano. Os estudos foram identificados por busca bibliográfica nas bases de dados: LILACS, PUBMED/MEDLINE e EMBASE. Artigos, com qualquer tipo de desenho metodológico, publicados nos idiomas português, inglês e espanhol, foram incluídos. Resultados: Quarenta e oito artigos foram incluídos para a extração das características e resultados referentes à pergunta da pesquisa. Conclusão: A atividade de monitoramento estava articulada à vigilância como ação do Estado em dezoito estudos (37,5%). O método eletrométrico foi usado em 39 (81%) estudos. Apenas dois estudos utilizaram o método da Alizarina, sugerindo-se o seu desuso. A classificação em categorias de tipo \"adequado\" e \"inadequado\" (dicotômica), a qual reduz as opções de interpretação e atribuição de significado às características das amostras, predominou na apresentação dos resultados. / Introduction: Knowledge on the concentration of fluoride in water for human consumption is important for the prevention and control of dental caries and dental fluorosis in populations. Objective: To describe the characteristics of the studies and the results on monitoring of fluoride levels in water for human consumption published in specialized journals in the period 2008-2012. Methods: A systematic review of the scientific literature was performed. Only articles on monitoring of fluoride concentration in drinking water were included. Studies were identified by literature searching in databases: LILACS, PUBMED / MEDLINE and EMBASE. Articles with any type of methodological design, published in Portuguese, English and Spanish were included. Results: Forty-eight articles were included for the extraction of features and results related to the research question. Conclusion: The monitoring activity was articulated to the surveillance as an action provided by the State in eighteen studies (37,5%). The electrometric method was used in 39 (81%) studies. Only two studies used the method of Alizarin, suggesting its disuse. The dichotomous categorization \"appropriate\" and \"in appropriate\" which reduces the options of interpretation and attribution of meaning to the sample characteristics predominated in the presentation of the results.

INTRODUCTION: More than 1.8 million diarrheal disease deaths can be attributed to the lack of access to water, sanitation and hygiene. These deaths occur mostly in developing countries where water quality testing resources are limited. Several tests are currently used to detect and quantify E. coli and other fecal coliforms in drinking water, however they can be expensive, complex, and technically demanding. There is a need for a simple, reliable, low-cost water quality test that can be used in resource limited settings. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to perform a rigorous evaluation of the recently developed compartment bag test for detection and quantification of E. coli against the standard method, membrane filtration. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 270 water samples were collected from forty-five various naturally contaminated water sources around metro-Atlanta from August 2011 through April 2012 and processed using the compartment bag test and membrane filtration with mI agar. Concentrations of E. coli were significantly correlated with a correlation coefficient of 0.904 (95% CI 0.859 – 0.950). Sensitivity and specificity were 94.9% and 96.6%, respectively. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the compartment bag test produces results consistent with those produced by membrane filtration on mI agar. Based upon its performance, the compartment bag test has the potential to be used as a reliable, low-cost drinking water quality test globally where water quality testing resources are not readily available, and can be implemented in monitoring activities for microbial water quality.

Water has cultural and spiritual values to indigenous people. These beliefs expose them to unsafe water sources and make them vulnerable to waterborne diseases. This background is not taken into account when countries write their water legislations, therefor imposing a management of water not readily accepted by them. The Embera group is one of the indigenous groups from the Republic of Panama, who have strong water beliefs. They live along the shore of rivers in houses built on high stilts away from urban areas. The purpose of this cross-sectional community based study is to describe through a survey the relation between the water beliefs of Embera communities living inside the Chagres National Park and the health of women and children. A house to house visit was performed in two of the five Embera communities that reside inside the Chagres National Park to enroll them and complete the survey. Sixteen Embera households with 71 family members agreed to participate. Results showed that 18.5% were children under 5 years of age and 14.1% their corresponding mothers. One hundred percent of the households rely on rural aqueduct as their source of water, with no treatment performed to this water. Women that completed elementary school or had higher education level accounted for 53.4%. Analysis of frequency of more than three diarrheal episodes in children under 5 years of age with mother's education level and months of breastfeeding had no statistical significance (X2 of 1.935, p-value of >0.05; X2 of 0.258, p-value of >0.05). When the frequency of diarrheal episodes in women and their education level was analyzed a statistically significant association was found (X2 of 6.429, p-value of 0.011). Five (38.5%) out of 13 children under 5 years of age in these communities had complete immunization calendar for their ages, but 10 (76.9%) have completed immunization for Rotavirus. No deaths due to diarrhea were reported in any member of the household. Marginalization in this type of communities is frequent since they settle in vast areas far from access to safe roads, safe water, basic sanitation and health services. A similar study can be applied to the 5 communities living in the area to have a clear view of their water beliefs, diseases and needs in order to concentrate efforts to close any gaps.

The Peruvian Water Resources Law (Ley de Recursos Hídricos 29338) aims to promote educational programs on the importance of water (Art. 3, section 3). On the other hand, PUCP seeks to analyze and reflect on the current way of teaching to develop a new teaching method. The “Safe Water Industry in the City and Innovation Management” (La Industria del Agua Potable en una Ciudad y la Gestión de la Innovación) intends to develop an active and collaborative methodology jointly with students, teachers and professionals, while making use of ICT’s to produce training videos about water. Churches’ “Bloom’s Taxonomy for the Digital Era” is employed in understanding and interpreting the advanced learning methodology. / La Ley de Recursos Hídricos 29338 del Perú busca promover programas de educación sobre la importancia del agua; por su parte, la PUCP busca incentivar prácticas de enseñanza docente producto del análisis y de la reflexión sobre cómo se está enseñando. El curso La Industria del Agua Potable en una Ciudad y la Gestión de la Innovación tiene como intención desarrollar una metodología activa y colaborativa con alumnos, expertos y profesores, usando las TIC para producir videos de capacitación sobre el agua. Para la comprensión e interpretación de la forma de aprendizaje desarrollado se usa la Taxonomía de Bloom para la Era Digital, de Andrew Churches.

Around three-quarters of Bangladeshis (total population 164 million) live in rural areas: only 25% of these households have access to grid electricity with non-reliable supply despite the country’s successful rural electrification program, kerosene is the predominant source for lighting, and woody biomass is virtually the only option available for cooking. Aside from this energy service challenges the rural population also struggles with unsafe drinking water in terms of widespread arsenic contamination of well water. Access to electricity, clean cooking gas, and safe drinking water services are genuine needs of the rural poor and are essential to improving welfare. These needs can be addressed individually or using an integrated approach. Anaerobic digesters are now a proven technology and remain economically promising in the rural setting, where connection to the public electric and gas grids are not available/either not cost effective or feasible, and where energy and water scarcity are severe. As the technologies continue to improve, and as energy and safe water becomes scarce and fossil fuel energy prices rise, renewable energy based services and technological integration becomes more viable techno-economically. In these circumstances, the integration of biogas digester with power generation and water purification unit is an innovative concept that could be applied in remote areas of Bangladesh.   This work presents a new concept for integrated polygeneration and analyzes the techno-economic performance of the scheme for meeting the demand of electricity, cooking energy and safe drinking water of 30 households in a rural village of Bangladesh. This study considers a holistic approach towards tackling both of these issues via integrated renewable energy-based polygeneration employed at the community level. The polygeneration unit under consideration provides electricity via cow dung-fed digester, which in turn is coupled to a gas engine. Excess digester gas is employed for cooking, while waste heat from the process drives a membrane distillation unit for water purification. The specific technologies chosen for the key energy conversion steps are as follows: plug-flow digester; internal combustion engine; and air-gap membrane distillation. The technical features, energy consumption, and potential of renewable energy use in driving the main integrated processes are reviewed and analyzed in this thesis. This study also examines one approach by investigating the application of suitable membrane technologies, specifically air gap membrane distillation (AGMD), as a promising method for small-scale, low cost deployment.    Experimental results show that the tested AGMD prototype is capable of achieving high separation efficiency, as all product water samples showed arsenic levels below accepted limits. Mass flows and energy balance, life cycle cost (levelized cost) of producing electricity, cooking gas and safe drinking water as well as the payback period of such a polygeneration system were studied. The results indicate that this polygeneration system is much more competitive and promising than other available technologies when attempting to solve the energy and arsenic-related problems in Bangladesh. One of the main encouraging issues of this integrated system is the levelized cost of the three major services: cooking gas (0.015 USD/kWh), electricity (0.042 USD/kWh–an orders of magnitude lower than comparable photovoltaic or wind systems) and safe drinking water (0.003 USD/liter). Additionally, the payback period is between 2.6 to 4 years. / <p>QC 20150516</p>

This dissertation presents the design and case study application of a participatory decision-making support tool for appropriate safe water systems development in marginalized low-income communities of the global South. The tool focuses on the resolution of two key design decisions: 1) selecting the appropriate level of application (i.e. household or community level) for a safe water system; and 2) selecting an appropriate water treatment technology (or technologies). The tool breaks the process down into four stages. First are pre-implementation steps which develop a contextualized, baseline understanding of the local community. Second is community-based field research, including focus groups and key informant/informal interviews, to investigate the two key design questions by exploring local preferences, capacities, and circumstances with community-members, government officers, NGO workers, and other stakeholders. Third are analytical steps to integrate information from baseline, informal, and primary research to generate recommendations on the two key design questions. This includes a comparative analysis of household and community level systems; a technology feasibility flowchart; performance assessments of technological alternatives with respect to appropriate technology criteria; and a multi-factor analysis to integrate information from the preceding analytical steps. Fourth are community forums in which further participatory action and research is planned on the basis of the recommendations emerging from the tool. Through these steps, the decision-making support tool guides implementing organizations through the stages of safe water systems design and planning in a manner that centres local people in the process. The tool weaves together several theoretical and methodological strands including humanitarian engineering, post-normal science, appropriate technology, participatory development, grounded theory, engineering decision-making, and water treatment engineering. The case study application of the decision-making support tool was conducted in a marginalized peri-urban community called Mylai Balaji Nagar in Chennai, India. This indicated that a household level approach is more appropriate for the case study community and that the TATA Swach filter, alum coagulation with chlorination, or boiling, in order of decreasing suitability, may be appropriate technologies for household application in the case study community. / Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Department: School of Engineering Advisor: Hall, Kevin / International Development Research Centre (IDRC)

Despite the country's rural electrification programme, kerosene is the predominant source for lighting, and unsustainable and polluting woody biomass is virtually the only option available for cooking. The rural population also struggles with unsafe drinking water in terms of widespread arsenic contamination of well water. The present work has taken an integrated approach in an attempt to mitigate problems through small-scale polygeneration, a concept linking renewable energy sources to these energy needs via novel energy conversion systems. Anaerobic digesters (AD) for biogas production are promising in the rural setting, and field surveys have identified problems in the construction, maintenance and operation of existing AD, particularly in overall performance of household digesters. Based on these results, a number of operational and technological improvements are suggested for employing digesters in polygeneration units. This study also examines one approach for small-scale, low cost arsenic removal in groundwater through air gap membrane distillation, a thermally-driven water purification technology. Integration of biogas production with power generation and water purification is an innovative concept that lies at the core of feasibility analyses conducted in this work. One of the case studies presents a new concept for integrated biogas based polygeneration and analyzes the techno-economic performance of the scheme for meeting the demand of electricity, cooking energy and safe drinking water of 30 households in a rural village of Bangladesh. The specific technologies chosen for the key energy conversion steps are as follows: plug-flow digester; internal combustion engine; and membrane distillation. One major concern is local feedstock availability for the digester, since a single feedstock is impractical to serve both cooking, lighting and water purification systems. In this circumstance solar PV could be a potential option for integrated hybrid systems. / Bangladesh har varit föremål för en svår energikris (bristande el- och gasnät) de senaste tre decennierna. Landsbygden, som innefattar 75 % av befolkningen, har varit särskilt drabbad. Trots landets elektrifieringsprogram av landsbygden är fotogenlampor den företrädande ljuskällan, medan förorenande och ohållbar träbaserad biomassa är praktiskt taget det enda alternativet för matlagning. Landsbygden kämpar samtidigt mot osäkert dricksvatten, på grund av utbredd arsenikförgiftning av brunnsvatten, med negativa hälsoeffekter som följd. Tillgång till ren energi och säkert dricksvatten är verkliga behov bland de fattiga på landsbygden, för ökad välfärd. Detta arbete antar ett integrerat tillvägagångssätt för att försöka lösa dessa problem genom småskalig polygenerering. Detta koncept länkar samman förnyelsebara energikällor av biomassa och sol med energibehoven, genom nya energiomvandlingssystem. Anaerobiska rötkammare för biogasproduktion är lovande för landsbygdsmiljö, även om det för närvarande råder en betydande klyfta mellan den tekniska och kostandseffektiva potentialen och faktisk implementering på grund av bristande tekniskt kunnande och tillgång på råmaterial, höga installations- och driftkostnader, och begränsade användartillämpningar. Intervjuundersökningar visar på problem i konstruktion, underhåll och drift av befintliga anaerobiska rötkammare. Särskilt den generella prestandan hos hushållsrötkammare identifieras som bristfällig. Utifrån dessa resultat föreslås en rad drift- och teknikförbättringar för att utnyttja rötkammare i polygenereringssystem.   Denna studie undersöker även en metod för småskalig och kostnadseffektiv arsenikrening av grundvatten genom membrandestillation med luftspalt (Air Gap Membrane Distillation, AGMD), vilket är en termiskt driven vattenreningsteknik. Resultat från en experimentell undersökning visar att den undersökta AGMD-prototypen är kapabel att uppnå utmärkt separationseffektivitet med hänsyn till arsenikrening. Parametriska studier med fokus på varierande kylvattentemperatur illustrerar möjligheten att integrera AGMD-teknik i diverse termiska system. Integrering av biogasproduktion med kraftproduktion och vattenrening är ett innovativt koncept som utgör kärnan av förstudierna utförda i detta arbete. En av studierna visar ett nytt koncept för biogasbaserad polygenerering och analyserar den techno-ekonomiska prestandan av metoden för att möta efterfrågan av elektricitet, matlagningsvärme och säkert dricksvatten för 30 hushåll i en Bangladeshisk by på landsbygden. De specifika tekniker som valts för energiomvandlingsstegen är följande: plugg-flödesrötkammare, förbränningsmotor och en AGMD-enhet. Termodynamisk utvärdering inklusive mass- och energibalans av systemet undersöktes tillsammans med produktionskostnaden för elektricitet, matlagningsgas, och säkert dricksvatten. Även återbetalningsperiod och internräntan undersöktes. För att bemöta energi- och arsenikproblemen i Bangladesh, indikerar resultaten att detta polygenereringssystem är mycket mer konkurrenskraftigt och lovande (med avseende på produktionskostnaderna) jämfört med andra tillgängliga tekniker. Ett viktigt problem för rötkammaren är tillgången till lokalt råmaterial, eftersom en ensam källa till råmaterial är opraktiskt för att tillgodose efterfrågan från både matlagning, belysning och vattenrening. I detta fall kan solceller vara ett potentiellt alternativ för integrerade hybridsystem. Teknisk värdering och optimering har genomförts för elektricitet med verktyget HOMER (Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources), för ett polygenereringssystem beläget i byn Panipara i Faridpur. Resultaten visar att systement kan tillgodoses det dagliga elektricitetsbehovet och samtidigt producera 0.4 m3 matlagningsbränsle och 2-3 L/person rent dricksvatten. Kostnadsuppskattningar visar att denna metod är högst gynnsam jämfört med andra förnyelsebara alternativ (t ex vind-, vatten-, biobränslebaserad- eller geotermisk energi). / <p>QC 20170419</p> / SIDA – the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Department for Research Cooperation, SAREC- project no. SWE-2011-135 / STEM-Fjärrsyn project 2014

Globally a major health concern according to the World health organization (WHO, 2011) is gastro-intestinal infections caused by fecally contaminated water. The access to drinking water has increased due to international efforts, however the long-term sustainability and safety of the water accessed have gained criticism, and many water sources have proven to be both contaminated (UN, 2016) and badly managed (WHO, 2016a).  This thesis aims to design a monitoring program for small-scale water treatment in order to make the water supply sustainable in terms of providing safe water in a long-term perspective. A case-study was conducted for three treatment systems under constructed in rural Ecuador. The monitoring program design was based on a literature review and conducting a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). QMRA is a tool for estimating microbial risks, by using quantitative data on microbial contamination and estimating health risks. Data for the QMRA was gathered from literature and in field, and the reference pathogens used in the QMRA were E.coli O157:H7, Rotavirus and Giardia. In order to estimate infection risk from drinking water consumption for the community a QMRA-model called MRA, developed by Abrahamsson et al. (2009) was used.  Observations of the catchment areas and measurement of water quality regarding aspects other than microbial contamination indicated that the main risk was microbial contamination from fecal contaminations in the catchment area. The results from the QMRA indicated that the treatment using chlorination reduces E.coli O157:H7 under the acceptable risk level of 1/1000 infections per person and year, while the systems using biosand filters (BSF) are more effective in reducing rotavirus and Giardia. If the BSF are combined with chlorination the annual probability of infection caused by consumption of the treated water per year and person was 0.42/1000 for E.coli O157:H7, 570/1000 for Rotavirus and 25/1000 for Giardia.  The resulting monitoring program was divided into two parts: one part aimed to prevent contamination and one part designed to measure pH, temperature, conductivity, turbidity on a weekly basis and microbial indicator tests using a presence/absence method monthly. Additional testing is to be done in case of events of such character that the water quality could be effected, for example an extreme weather event.  It was concluded that the designed monitoring program could help improve the water quality in a long-term perspective, but it is dependent on the possibilities to get the necessary support, especially in the implementation phase. Recommended further studies includes collection of more site-specific data to make the QMRA results more representative, and evaluation of the monitoring program design by implementing it and optimizing it in the communities. / Runt om i världen skapar en otillräcklig tillgång på rent vatten och sanitet mycket lidande. Enlig världshälsoorganisationen WHO (2011) är ett av de ledande världshälsoproblem mag- och tarminfektioner som orsakats av vattenburna fekala patogener. Trots att antalet människor med tillgång till en dricksvattenkälla har ökat till följd av internationella ansträngningar, är hållbarheten och säkerheten för vattenkvalitén problematisk. Många dricksvattenkällor har visat sig vara både förorenade (UN, 2016) och undermåligt skötta (WHO, 2016a). Målet med denna studie är att ta fram ett vattenkvalitetsövervakningsprogram för tre småskaliga vattenreningsverk, för att dessa ska producera säkert vatten i ett långsiktigt perspektiv.  En fallstudie utfördes i byar på landsbygden i Ecuador där systemen planerats. Metoden för att ta fram ett kvalitetsövervakningsprogram var litteraturstudie och mikrobiell riskanalys. Den mikrobiella riskanalysen genomfördes med en metod som kallas Kvantitativ Mikrobiell Risk Analys (QMRA). I QMRA kan hälsorisker från mikrobiell kontamination estimeras med kvantitativdata på mikrobiell förorening. Data för att genomföra QMRA samlades från litteraturen och fältbesök. För att estimera hälsorisker i byarna i fallstudien användes en QMRA-modell som heter MRA framtaget av Abrahamsson et.al. (2009).  Observationer i fält och data på ingående vatten tydde på att de största riskerna för vattenkvalitén var fekal kontamination från djur och människor. Resultaten från QMRA:n visade att reningsverket med klorering reducerade E.coli O157:H7 till en nivå under den accepterade risknivå, satt till 1/1000 infekterade per år och person. Reningsverken med biosandfilter (BSF) var mer effektiva i reduktionen av rotavirus och Giardia. Då klor kombinerades med BSF i modellen blev den årliga infektionsnivån per person 570/1000 för Rotavirus och 25/1000 för Giardia.  Vattenkvalitetsövervakningsprogrammet delades in två delar: en kontaminationsförebyggande och en för att mäta pH, temperatur, konduktivitet och turbiditet veckovis, samt mikrobiella indikatortest med en metod som noterar förekomst av bakteriekolonier (presence/absence metod) månadsvis. Extra tester ska även göras vid sådan händelse som kan komma att påverka vattenkvalitén avsevärt, exempelvis en kraftig storm.  Slutsatsen är att det framtagna vattenkvalitetsövervakningsprogrammet kan göra att vatten-källan blir mer säker och hållbar i ett långsiktigt perspektiv, men att framgången är beroende av att rätt hjälp finns tillhanda speciellt i implementeringsfasen. Fortsatta studier behövs för att göra resultaten från QMRA:n mer representativa, exempelvis genom att samla mer områdesspecifikdata. Vidare skulle det vara intressant att implementera kvalitetsövervakningsprogrammet för att utvärdera och optimera det.

The Diploma thesis deals with the safety assesment of the small water reservoir Bartošovice III during the floods, according to requirments of TNV 75 2935 (technical standard). First two chapters are devoted to the description of the dam purpose. Following chapter deals with the summary of basic information and documentation, including hydraulic analysis. In the following section maximum permissible safe water level is determined together with the maximum check flood water level in reservoir which reflects the flood wave transformation. In the final evaluation the comparison of the maximum permissible safe water level with maximum check flood level is carried out. At the end of the thesis recommendations leading to ensuring of reliability and safety of water reservoir are listed.