Bibliography: leaves 119-218. / xiv, 218 leaves : ill. (some col.), maps (some col.) ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Salt Manager represents the software system developed by this thesis to implement an interactive land classification methodology. An Expert System (ES), a Geographic Information System (GIS), remotely sensed information and a relational database management system (RDBMS) have been utilised to construct the methodology. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geography, 1995

Dryland salinity is a major and expanding threat to agricultural land in Australia. Animal production from forages grown on saline land is perhaps its most promising economic use. Glycophytic forage legumes have been evaluated under saline conditions mainly for agronomic characteristics and, to a lesser extent, for nutritive quality to animals. Plant growth and its nutritive quality are interrelated, but a decline in yield in response to salinity may be associated with effects on the chemical constituents of the plant since soil salinity affects plant metabolism. This research aimed to investigate changes in the components of yield and nutritive value of two legumes species. Lucerne ( Medicago sativa ) and Melilotus ( Melilotus albus ) were exposed to different levels of NaCl in the range of 0 to 110 mM NaCl. The research tested the hypothesis that the components of plant nutritive value are not as sensitive to salinity as shoot biomass production since the adaptive mechanisms of the plant lessen harmful effects of the salts. For both plant species, salinity decreased leaf and stem dry matter production, but increased leaf - to - stem ratio. In addition, salinity resulted in earlier flowering in Melilotus. Mineral composition was the most sensitive component of forage quality. Calculated sodium chloride concentrations were up to 125 g / kg DM in lucerne and 39 g / kg DM in Melilotus when irrigated with 110 mM NaCl. The concentrations of calcium and magnesium decreased in both species and approached the marginal range for animal production. Zinc concentration also decreased while potassium decreased in stems of lucerne only. The digestible organic matter ( DOMD ) in response to salinity varied between species. At the highest salt concentration, the whole shoot ( i.e., leaf and stem ) of lucerne decreased up to 4 percentage units while Melilotus increased by 6 percentage units. In lucerne, DOMD was influenced by a high concentration of soluble ash in leaf and stem and, in Melilotus, by an increase in the organic matter content of leaf and a reduction in lignin concentration in stem, which favoured higher digestibility. These results were supported by a histological study in which an increase in starch in Melilotus leaf, and a lower proportion of xylem in relation to parenchyma in stems, was measured. Crude protein concentration was not compromised and, in relation to Melilotus, coumarin concentration did not increase with salinity. In conclusion, the reduction in DM production of species with similar salt tolerance does not necessarily correspond to an equivalent reduction in nutritive value. This research represents the most detailed study into effects of salinity on glycophytic forage legumes. Results show that while some aspects of forage quality ( e.g., minerals composition and energy ) are strongly influenced by salinity, other aspects ( e.g., protein ) remain relatively unaffected. These findings have implications for development of productive grazing systems on saline agricultural land. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2006.

South Africa is an arid country and its growing population is putting freshwater resources under increasing pressure. Natural salinization of freshwater systems is being exacerbated by anthropogenic influences. The National Water Act (No. 36 of 1998) stipulates the need for an ecological Reserve, that quantity and quality of freshwater needed to protect freshwater ecosystems while allowing sustainable use of freshwater resources. Water guidelines do exist in the form of the South African Water Quality Guidelines (DWAF, 1996) and more recently, Jooste and Rossouw (2002) compiled benchmark values for water quality variables marking the boundaries between ecological health classes in the 4-category classification system. Predominantly international toxicity data were used to compile the guidelines and the benchmark values. In addition, there is a paucity of chronic toxicity data nationally and internationally. This thesis showed that it is statistically possible to derive protective chronic endpoints for salinity from acute toxicity data through extrapolation. The Acute to Chronic Ratio (ACR), Two-Step Linear Regression (LRA) and Multi-Factor Probit Analysis (MPA) extrapolation methods were investigated to derive chronic toxicity data from acute toxicity data. The authors of LRA and MPA recommend associating a time independent LCx value in the range of LC₀¸₀₁ to LC₁₀ with a Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNOEC). In addition to published methods, this thesis studied the possibility of equating a time independent LC₅₀ value and subjected to a safety factor of 5 (LRA LC₅₀/5), to the PNOEC. Extrapolated chronic toxicity data where the toxicants are NaCl and Na₂SO₄ were derived for indigenous South African macroinvertebrates. NaCl and Na₂SO₄ are salts associated with salinisation in South Africa. In addition, a chronic salinity toxicity test protocol for an indigenous South African aquatic macroinvertebrate was designed and chronic toxicity test were performed using NaCl and Na₂SO₄ as toxicants. The experimental chronic toxicity data produced were used to validate results from the acute to chronic extrapolation methods. Extrapolated chronic toxicity data were inputted into Species Sensitivity Distribution curves, and concentrations that were predicted to protect 95 % of species (PC95) were compared to the sub-lethality benchmarks proposed by Jooste and Rossouw (2002) for NaCl and Na₂SO₄. This study concluded that the LRA LC₅₀/5 extrapolation method is the most protective and accurate and proposed that LRA replace the ACR method in future guideline development for inorganic salts.

No description available.

The dynamics of salt accumulation in the soil over time is one of major important information input needed for decision-making in regard to irrigate with saline water. As all waters contain some dissolved salts, during the irrigation these salts tend to concentrate in the soil causing depressed plant growth. Saline irrigation water, low soil permeability, inadequate drainage conditions, low rainfall and poor irrigation management all contribute to the tendency of salt accumulation in the soil. The principal salt accumulation problem of economic importance arises when non-saline soils become saline as result of irrigation. The dynamics of salt accumulation in this study, is based on the model for tracing salt distribution in the soil affected by the quantity and quality of irrigation water, amount of nitrogen and initial soil salinity. To verify the model for tracing salt distribution in the soil and to statistically estimate a crop-production function and soil salinity relation, agronomic data were used from field experiment conducted at the University of Arizona, Maricopa Agricultural Center (MAC), during the 1985 growing season and that utilized cotton variety Delta Pine 61. From the point of view of the response functions and salt accumulation in the soil, many assumptions were made before formulating the models. Results show that (1) no conclusions could be drawn with respect to the model of salt accumulation in the soil, (2) in the case of yield production function and soil salinity relation, the water quantity coeffient had an absolute value greater than one, (3) water quality and nitrogen coefficients had an absolute value less than one, (4) initial soil salinity coefficient had negative value, (5) looking for the best combination amoung the variables inputs, the marginal rate of substitution was greater than the ratio of prices, (6) the time path for soil salinity converge to a steady state conditions, and (7) the profitability of cotton irrigated with drip system is sensitive to yield increases and increases in the price of cotton.

Global sea levels are expected to rise as a result of climate change, which will lead to the inundation and erosion of low lying coastal areas and accelerate the intrusion of seawater into sub-surface sediments. Many of the UK’s legacy nuclear facilities are located in close proximity to the shore, raising questions regarding the potential mobilisation of radionuclides during sea level rise. Here batch and column experiments were used to simulate and investigate the effect of these processes on the mobilisation of key radionuclides Tc, 90Sr and U from oxic and reduced sediments under sea level rise scenarios. Strontium-90 was rapidly mobilised from exchangeable surface sites from oxic sediments during inundation and erosion scenarios with seawater (≈ 60%). Strontium release was driven by ion exchange between Sr90 and Mg2+ cations present in high concentrations in seawater. Uranium release from oxic and reduced sediments was kinetically controlled, characterised by slow release from a range of binding sites, promoted by the formation of U-carbonate complexes. Uranium mobilisation was slower from reduced sediments compared with oxic sediments under seawater flow conditions; therefore reduced sediments would act as a longer term source of U to marine environments. Release was more extensive from initially nitrate reducing sediments (53%) compared with extensively iron reducing sediments (38%), with the difference in release explained by the longer contact period of U(VI) with the iron reducing sediment relative to the nitrate reducing sediment which would lead to slower desorption. Additionally, U(IV) species would be released more slowly than U(VI) species sorbed to the sediments. The release of Tc was dependent on sediment re-oxidation coupled with the oxidation of Tc(IV) to Tc(VII). Batch experiments showed that only a small proportion of Tc was rapidly (within 5 days) released from the sediments into seawater and groundwater which suggests that the majority of any Tc(IV) contamination will be released slowly as the seawater plume migrates through the sediments. Technetium release was slowest, and ultimately limited to the greatest extent (17%), in initially Fe-reducing sediments, when they were re-oxidised in seawater. Thus the cycling of iron and the impact of the water chemistry on iron mineralogy were important for hindering Tc release. Column experiments showed that iron minerals were less effective at retarding Tc release under flow-through conditions. Kinetically controlled and solubility limited Fe dissolution led to on-going Tc release from the sediments, i.e. the retarding effect of iron phases was temporary and significantly more Tc was mobilised (79-93%) compared with the batch experiments (17-45%). This study has shown for the first time that radionuclides will be released from reduced and oxic sediments as a result of future sea level rise. Contaminated sediments have the potential to act as a secondary source of radionuclide contamination entering the marine environment from coastal nuclear sites. This information is essential when siting new nuclear facilities and when developing effective remediation, decommissioning and management strategies for legacy coastal sites.

O uso da irrigação em cafeeiro é uma tecnologia que vem se consolidando e mostrando-se economicamente viável ao longo dos tempos, trazendo junto com ela a técnica da fertirrigação. Desta forma, o presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a influência de formas de aplicação e fontes de fertilizantes sobre a condutividade elétrica e pH da solução do solo, bem como no desenvolvimento e produção do café conilon irrigado por gotejamento. O trabalho foi desenvolvido em São Gabriel da Palha, Espírito Santo, utilizando o clone 12V da variedade INCAPER 8142. O experimento foi delineado em blocos ao acaso (DBC) com seis tratamentos e quatro blocos. Os tratamentos adotados foram: T1 - Controle - adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via solo nas fontes ureia e cloreto de potássio; T2 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via solo nas fontes ureia e cloreto de potássio de liberação controlada; T3 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via fertirrigação nas fontes ureia e cloreto de potássio; T4 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via fertirrigação nas fontes nitrato de amônio e sulfato de potássio; T5 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via fertirrigação nas fontes nitrato de amônio e nitrato de potássio; T6 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via solo nas fontes ureia e cloreto de potássio de liberação controlada no período de outubro a março (período chuvoso) e adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via fertirrigação, nas fontes nitrato de amônio e sulfato de potássio no período de abril a setembro (período seco). Foi monitorado o pH e condutividade elétrica da solução do solo, avaliações biométricas das plantas tais como altura, comprimento do primeiro ramo plagiotrópico e número de nós no primeiro ramo plagiotrópico, além da produção por planta e estimativa de produtividade. Os tratamentos T1 e T3 que utilizaram ureia e cloreto de potássio e o T4 - nitrato de amônio e sulfato de potássio disponibilizaram maiores quantidade de nitrogênio na forma amoniacal, causando maior acidificação do bulbo. Em contrapartida os tratamentos T2, T5 e T6 apresentaram menor acidificação, com diferença estatística significativa na variação do pH nas duas profundidades analisadas a partir de 18 meses da aplicação dos tratamentos. Nos tratamentos T2 e T6 observou-se menor salinidade inicial na avaliação aos 90 dias após o plantio através da leitura da condutividade elétrica da solução do solo. Para as avaliações biométricas, os tratamentos T2, T4, T5 e T6 diferiram estatisticamente dos tratamentos T1 e T3, influenciando positivamente à altura de plantas, comprimento e número de nós no primeiro ramo plagiotrópico. / Fertigation is a widespread technology in coffee cultivation; however, with the insertion of new fertilizers technologies, new studies are required. This study aims to evaluate the influence of application types and fertilizers sources on the electrical conductivity and pH of the soil solution in the wet bulb as well its influence in the development and production of drip irrigated conilon coffee. The study was conducted in São Gabriel da Palha, Espírito Santo (Brazil), using 12V clone variety INCAPER 8142. The experiment was designed in randomized blocks (DBC) with six treatments and four blocks. The adopted treatments were: T1 - Control / nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied via soil: urea and potassium chloride; T2 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied via soil : urea and potassium chloride with release controlled; T3 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied by fertigation: urea and potassium chloride; T4 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied by fertigation: ammonium nitrate and potassium sulfate; T5 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied by fertigation: ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate; T6 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied via soil: urea and potassium chloride with controlled release in the period from October to March (rainy season) and nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied by fertigation, ammonium nitrate and potassium sulphate in the period from April to September (dry season). The biometric evaluations of the plants were: height, length of the first branch and number of nodes in the first plagiotrophycal in addition to production per plant and productivity estimate. T1 and T3 treatments using immediate solubility of urea and T4 - ammonium nitrate have provided large amount of nitrogen in the ammonium form, causing increased acidification in the bulb. In contrast the T2, T5 and T6 treatments had lower acidification, with statistically significant differences in the pH variation in two depths analyzed from 18 months of treatment application. In treatments T2 and T6 it was observed lower initial salinity in the evaluation at 90 days after planting through the EC reading. To biometric assessments, treatments T2, T4, T5 and T6 differ statistically from T1 and T3, influencing plant height, length and number of nodes in the first plagiotrophycal.

O semiárido cearense apresenta um baixo potencial hídrico superficial, aumentando a dependência da população às águas subterrâneas. O Aquífero Fraturado, constituído pelo embasamento cristalino, é o de maior ocorrência na região e apresenta baixa produtividade e teores excessivos de sais. O presente trabalho propôs avaliar os condicionantes regionais que controlam as produtividades nos aquíferos no semiárido com base nas informações de mais de 6 mil poços tubulares. A correlação entre a litologia, clima e geomorfologia demonstrou que a primeira exerce o papel principal no controle das potencialidades hídricas, sendo o clima o seu segundo fator de influência. Os maiores valores de mediana da capacidade específica (Q/smed) de 15,32 m3/h/m e 0,83 m3/h/m foram verificados em rochas carbonáticas e sedimentares em clima úmido/subúmido, respectivamente. Desta forma, suas produtividades são mais evidentes em climas mais úmidos, logo que sua permeabilidade intrínseca e produtividade estabelecem uma relação diretamente proporcional com a disponibilidade de chuvas. De maneira geral, os metassedimentos (Q/smed 0,099 m3/h/m) se apresentaram mais produtivos quando comparados aos gnaisses e migmatitos (0,051 m3/h/m) e às rochas plutônicas (0,052 m3/h/m). Nos gnaisses e migmatitos o clima aparentou não ter uma influência efetiva na produtividade. As águas subterrâneas da região têm elevada salinidade, confirmada em 210 análises hidroquímicas. O mecanismo de salinização dos aquíferos no semiárido provavelmente está associado aos sais aerotransportados do mar, com predominância para o cloreto e sódio, e às elevadas taxas de evaporação, como pode ser confirmado pelas maiores concentrações de cloreto na água de poços localizados mais próximos à costa. O mecanismo de recarga em rochas mais permeáveis pode favorecer a redução de salinidade (maior infiltração), como o verificado em metassedimentos, quando comparadas às maiores concentrações verificadas em gnaisses e migmatitos. / The semi-arid region of Ceará has low surface-water availability, increasing the population\'s dependence on groundwater. The fractured aquifer, constituted by a crystalline basement, is the one with the highest occurrence in the region and presents low productivity and excessive levels of salinity. The present work proposed to evaluate the regional constraints that control the aquifer productivities in the semiarid region based on the information of more than 6 thousand tubular wells. The correlation between lithology, climate and geomorphology has shown that the former plays the main role in controlling the aquifer potentiality, with climate being its second influence factor. The highest values of specific capacity average (Q/s avg) were verified in carbonate (15.32 m3/h/m) and sedimentary (0.83 m3/h/m) rocks in humid/sub- humid climate. In this way, their productivities are more evident in more humid climates, once their intrinsic permeability and productivity establish a relationship directly proportional to the availability of rainfall. In general, metasediments (Q/s avg 0.099 m3/h/m) were more productive when compared to gneisses and migmatites (0,051 m3/h/m) and to plutonic rocks (0.052 m3/h/m). In the gneisses and migmatites, the climate appeared to have no effective influence on productivity. The groundwater of the region has high salinity, confirmed in 210 hydrochemical analyzes. The mechanism of salinization of aquifers is probably associated with salt seawater spray, predominantly for chloride and sodium, and high evaporation rates, as can be confirmed by the higher concentrations of chloride in the water of wells located closer to the coast. The mechanism of recharge in more permeable rocks may favor the reduction of salinity (greater infiltration), as verified in metasediments when compared to the higher concentrations observed in gneisses and migmatites.

This thesis presents the results of a computational study on salt transport and accumulation in crop root zone. The main objective of this study is to examine the impacts of past land use on the environment and to examine the effect of irrigation water on the rising of groundwater level and the subsequent salinity problem in rice growing area under given climatic conditions. A special focus has been such impacts in the Wakool irrigation area, NSW, Australia. To this end, a computational model for the assessment and prediction of salinisation in agricultural areas has been developed. This modelling system consists of a land surface scheme (ALSIS) for simulating unsaturated soil moisture and moisture flux, a groundwater flow model (MODFLOW) for estimating the spatial and temporal variations of groundwatertable, a surface flow model (DAFLOW) for calculating water flow in river networks, a module for calculating solute transport at unsaturated zone and a 3-D model (MOC3D) for simulating solute transport in groundwater as well as a module for calculating the spatial and temporal distributions of overland flow depth during wet seasons. The modelling system uses a finite difference linked technique to form a quasi three dimensional model. The land surface scheme is coupled with the groundwater flow model to account for the interactions between the saturated and unsaturated zones. On the land surface, the modelling system incorporates a surface runoff model and detailed treatments of surface energy balance, which is important in es-timating the evapotranspiration, a crucial quantity in calculating the moisture and moisture fluxes in the root zone. Vertical heterogeneity of soil hydraulic properties in the soil profile has been considered. The modelling system has the flexibility of using either Clapp and Hornberger (1978), Broadbridge and White (1988), van Genuchten (1980) or Brooks and Corey (1966) soil water retention models. Deep in the soil, the impact of groundwater table fluctuation on soil moisture and salinity in the unsaturated soil is also included. The calibration and validation for the system have been partially performed with observed groundwater levels in the Wakool irrigation area. The applications of the model to theWakool region are made in two steps. Firstly, a one-dimensional simulation to a selected site in the Wakool irrigation area is carried out to study the possible impact of ponded irrigation on salinisation and the general features of salt movement. Secondly, a more realistic three-dimensional simulation for the entire Wakool region is performed to study the spatial and temporal variations of root zone soil salinity under the influence of past land use from 1975 to 1994. To allow the assessment and prediction of the effects of ponded rice irrigation water (which contains salt) on soil salinity in the area, several hypothetical scenarios using different qualities of water for rice irrigation are tested. To facilitate comparative analysis of different scenarios, a base case is defined, for which irrigation water is assumed to be free of salt. The simulated results show that irrigation increases overall recharge to groundwater in the Wakool irrigation area. The use of ponded irrigation for rice growing has a substantial effect on salt accumulation in the root zone and the rising of groundwater level, indicating that irrigation at rice bay is a major budget item for controlling soil salinity problem in the local area.

Groundwater and surface water in the Edwards Plateau region exhibits spatial variability arising from mineral differences in aquifers and mixing of groundwaters with diverse flow paths and ages. Integration of basic hydrochemical and isotope data (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, [delta]¹⁸O, [delta]D, ¹⁴C, ³H) document that groundwaters in the Lower Cretaceous Edwards-Trinity (Plateau) aquifer system reflect intermixing of modern and Pleistocene recharge. Pleistocene recharge occurred under cooler paleo-climatic conditions, based on [delta]¹⁸O variance of 4.59%, and flow traversed sub-cropping Permian evaporite and Triassic strata under hydraulic conditions that promoted upward flow into the Plateau system. Recharge areas may have been in topographically elevated areas in New Mexico that no longer are connected with the Plateau. Present distribution of groundwaters with higher SO₄/Cl values occurring beneath topographic divides on the Plateau suggests that modern recharge occurs preferentially in losing-stream networks and is inhibited on divides by low-permeability soils. Relationships between ¹⁴C, tritium, [delta]¹³C, and Mg/Ca values confirm that effectively younger groundwaters occur beneath the upper parts of drainage networks, but down slope of divides. Thus, groundwater-age and hydrochemical data suggest that recharge preferentially occurs in the upper parts of drainage networks. Correlations between groundwater relative age and Mg/Ca enable estimation of the proportion of modern recharge at specific well locations based on Mg/Ca values and enables estimating local absolute recharge rates from regional-scale recharge estimates obtained from regional flow models. The Upper Colorado River bounds the northern and northeastern margin of the Plateau system and shows systematic chemical evolution along its flow path, including decreasing salinity and increasing SO₄/Cl values. The stream can be conceptually divided into three segments that each reflect groundwater inputs from five hydrochemically distinct intervals: 1) deep Permian and Pennsylvanian reservoirs similar to those that produce hydrocarbons in the region; 2) Upper Permian halite (Salado Formation); 3) the Triassic siliciclastic aquifer (Dockum Group); 4) the sulfate-evaporite-bearing Permian system (Ochoan, Guadalupian, and Leonardian Series); and 5) the Plateau aquifer system. Conservative mixing models suggest that any aquifer that the river is traversing at a specific location contributes a distinct hydrochemical signature, but the dominant contribution is from the Plateau system. / text