Oilseeds may be processed to yield a number of potentially valuable compounds and fractions including oil, protein and small molecules. However, energy costs associated with industrial processing of oilseeds can be significant. For example, processes that use water to dissolve and separate materials are burdened with the costs associated with concentrating value-added products from dilute solutions. The ethanol industry produces large amounts of an aqueous solution called thin stillage that has little value and is used in animal feed. Thin stillage contains some of the necessary salts used in protein extraction but has a low pH. Protein extraction and protein isolate production is commonly conducted at higher pH. Waste alkali from biodiesel production has a high pH and can be used to adjust the pH of thin stillage to improve its ability to extract protein from oilseed meal. By combining the properties of the waste products of both the ethanol and the biodiesel industries, a complementary process is possible that may have greater economic potential than current practices in industry.<p> In this study, processes for protein extraction from mustard (<i>Brassica juncea</i> (L.) Czern.) meal using thin stillage from ethanol production and glycerol from biodiesel production were studied. The osmotic potential of thin stillage used in this research was lower than that of water, whereas both the density and the viscosity were higher. The pH was typically 3.7-3.8, and the total Kjeldahl nitrogen was approximately 0.080.10 %, w/w. Organic compounds identified in thin stillage were isopropanol, ethanol, lactic acid, 1,3-propanediol, acetic acid, succinic acid, glycerophosphorylcholine, betaine, glycerol and phenethyl alcohol. In addition, yeasts, bacteria and fungi were also found. Moreover, the salt types and their concentrations in thin stillage were predictable. The salt types present in thin stillage were CaCl2, NaCl, K2SO4, NaNO3, Mg(OH)2, Na2SO4 and KOH. A model thin stillage synthesized for the purposes of this research had components and chemical and physical properties comparable to those of thin stillage from ethanol production. Protein was extracted from ground, defatted meal using thin stillage at different pHs and salt concentrations. The results showed that pH and salt content affected protein extraction efficiency. However, no differences were found in the efficiency of extraction, SDS-PAGE profile, digestibility, lysine availability or amino acid composition of protein extracted with thin stillage, model thin stillage or sodium chloride solution. Moreover, extracted protein did not display significant hydrolysis. The results from peptide sequencing showed that napin and cruciferin were the most prevalent proteins in the extracted fractions. When increasing the scale of the extraction, the efficiency of protein extraction and the percentage of protein in the extracted protein were decreased. Protein recovery achieved with the complementary protocol was higher than that reported for a published protocol. Allyl isothiocyanate was found in protein extracts.

The interactions of sulfate-reducing bacteria and Spartina alterniflora marsh grass have been established using a simulated salt marsh system and these interactions have been quantified using geochemical and molecular tools. Plant activities have a direct influence on mercury methylators and therefore control mercury transformation in the environment. Biogeochemical data show that sulfate and sulfide profiles change seasonally due to plant growth and senescence. Spartina alterniflora impact the two drivers for sulfate and sulfide transformation. The community of sulfate-reducing bacteria serve as the anaerobic driver and transform sulfate to sulfide (sulfate reduction). Sulfate-reducing bacteria have been identified as the principal methylators of mercury (Andersson, et al., 1990; Compeau and Bartha, 1985; Compeau and Bartha, 1984; Blum and Bartha, 1980; Gilmour and Capone). The aerobic driver is dissolved oxygen present in both porewater and plant root exudates, which transform sulfide back to sulfate (sulfide oxidation). Sulfate is not limiting in the vegetated sediment, even at the lower depths. Therefore, although sulfate reduction rates were high when plant activity was high, oxidative processes were also significant in the upper 4-cm of the sediment. In addition, demethylation of methylmercury to ionic Hg(II) in the porewater can occur through oxidative processes (Oremland et al., 1991). Therefore, the significance of sulfide oxidation may have strong implications for methylmercury demethylation in our marsh system.

Waste oil emulsions are generated in several manufacturing processes. Such emulsions not only affect the efficacy of wastewater treatment but also influence the water quality of the effluent. Therefore, these waste oil emulsions that have to be treated before being released into the environment. Many processes have been developed for demulsifying such materials and microwave irradiation has been shown to be most effective in this respect. It does not require the addition of chemicals and the oil recovered from the emulsion can be reused. With microwave irradiation, there are two main mechanisms occurring simultaneously. One is the rapid increase of temperature which reduces the viscosity of the emulsion. The other is molecular rotation, which neutralizes the Zeta potential because of the rearrangement of electrical charges surrounding the water droplets. Hence, water droplets coalesce and result in the separation of the emulsion. Addition of inorganic salts has also been shown to improve the efficiency of microwave irradiation in demulsification owing to an increase in solvent conductivity, which accelerates the heating rate. This process is termed salt-assisted microwave irradiation. In the present study, we propose that NaCl and artificial seawater can be an economical source of cations required in salt-assisted microwave demulsification. Our experiments included batch tests of emulsion characteristics and the effects of microwave operating conditions on demulsification rate and separation efficiency of three oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions (mineral oil, vegetable oil, and mineral-oil/vegetable-oil mix). First study was aimed to examine the demulsification of an O/W cutting oil emulsion with the addition of NaCl under microwave irradiation. This work investigates the effect of a set of operating variables, including irradiation time, irradiation power, dosage of NaCl, settling time, pH and the initial oil concentration, on the separation efficiency in the treatment of an oil in water (O/W) type cutting oil emulsion by microwave assisted demulsification. As a result of a series of batch demulsification tests a set of optimum operating conditions was found, consisting of 2 min of microwave irradiation at 280 W, the addition of 14 g/L of NaCl, 60 min settling time, and at a pH of 9.5. A separation efficiency of 93.8% was obtained with these conditions for 50 mL of cutting oil emulsion with an initial oil content of 10 g/L. The objective of the second study was to examine the demulsification of an O/W cutting oil emulsion, an olive oil emulsion, and a 1:1 cutting-oil/olive-oil emulsion mix, using a proposed process termed as seawater-assisted microwave irradiation demulsification. We conducted batch demulsification tests on 50-mL aliquots with an initial oil content of 10 g/L, and found that the separation efficiencies of a cutting oil emulsion, an olive oil emulsion, and a cutting-oil/olive-oil mix reached 93.1%, 92.6%, and 93.2%, respectively, using our optimum operating conditions, which were 40 sec of microwave irradiation at 700 W, a 60 min settling time, and addition of 12%, 32%, and 20% (all v/v) of artificial seawater, respectively. Using this set of operating conditions, a decrease in solution pH was found to significantly increase the demulsification efficiency after addition of inorganic acid, whereas an increase in the concentration of surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), resulted in a decrease in efficiency. In addition, our test data were explored using a stepwise regression method, yielding a multi-variable equation. This empirical equation was able to describe separation efficiency rather well, after exclusion of tests showing separation efficiency below 40% and temperature higher than the boiling point. This study could provide essential information related to O/W emulsions using salt-assisted microwave demulsification.

Ethylene is a gaseous growth regulator, and plays an important role in response to plant developmental and environmental stimuli. Ethylene also plays a key role in leaf senescence. Calcium is a second message, and participates in the signal transduction pathways of many plant physiological responses. In this research, ethephon, an ethylene-releasing compound, was used to induce sweet potato leaf yellowing, chlorophyll content reduction, photochemical Fv/Fm decrease, H2O2 elevation and senescence-associated gene expression. These ethephon-mediated effects were all delayed or repressed by pretreatment of a calcium ion chelator, EGTA. Treatment with a calcium ionophore A23187 also induced senescence-associated gene expression in sweet potato detached leaves, and the induction was repressed by EGTA pretreatment. Calcium signaling in general is transmitted by calcium sensor proteins, including calmodulin to translate into appropriate responses to developmental and environmental stimuli. Therefore, pretreatment with calmodulin inhibitor chlorpromazine (CPZ) delayed or repressed ethephon-mediated leaf senescence, H2O2 elevation and senescence-associated gene expression. These CPZ-mediated effects were reversed by the exogenous application of an ethephon-inducible calmodulin SPCAM fusion protein. These results suggest that external Ca2+ influx and calmodulin SPCAM play a role in ethephon signaling leading to leaf senescence, H2O2 elevation and senescence-associated gene expression. In addition, NaCl salt stress also caused sweet potato leaf senescence, H2O2 elevation and senescence-associated gene expression. Pretreatment with CPZ delayed or repressed NaCl salt stress-mediated leaf senescence, H2O2 elevation and senescence-associated gene expression. These CPZ-mediated effects were also reversed by the exogenous application of calmodulin SPCAM fusion protein. These results suggest that calmodulin SPCAM may play a role in NaCl salt stress signaling leading to leaf senescence, H2O2 elevation and senescence-associated gene expression. Based on these results, external Ca2+ influx is required for ethephon induced leaf senescence. Ethephon-inducible calmodulin SPCAM likely participates in ethylene and NaCl salt stress signaling leading to leaf senescence, H2O2 elevation and senescence-associated gene expression in sweet potato in order to cope with different developmental cues or environmental stimuli.

Crop lands around the world are becoming more salt-affected due to natural processes and agricultural practices. Due to this increase of salinization, acquisition of saline tolerant germplasm for breeding purposes is becoming a priority. Although cultivated sunflower is classified as a moderately salt tolerant crop, highly tolerant germplasm may be of value. The goal of this study was to screen Helianthus spp. in order to determine the salt tolerance of different genotypes. To accomplish this goal, a novel method of rapid screening was developed. Screening for tolerance at initial growth stages was accomplished by germinating seeds in varying concentrations of NaCl solution in petri dishes. Radicle lengths were measured as an indicator of tolerance. This method identified genotypes that are more tolerant than others during germination. Greenhouse trials were also conducted to ascertain morphological measurements during vegetative stages. Two field locations were chosen to screen germplasm for tolerance through physiological maturity; College Station, TX with low salt concentrations and Pecos, TX with high concentrations of salt in the soil and water. Vegetative growth measurements showed a significant genotype by environment interaction. Due to insect infestation in both locations, yields could not be accurately measured and thus compared between sites in 2010. Yields between locations in 2011 showed significant differences and identified germplasm more suited for cropping in salt affected soil. Seed oil content was determined with Fourier Transform Near-Infrared Spectroscopy. Seed oil content was not significantly different between locations, but was highly significant between genotypes. These screenings identified genotypes that are more salt tolerant than others.

Taiwan is an island surrounded by sea. Due to the topography, the coastal wetlands distribute almost around the west seashore, and some at the estuary of the east seashore. The coastal wetland is a transitional area between territory ecosystem and marine ecosystem. The environment of the coastal wetland is influenced by tide and season, thus the distribution of vegetations here exhibits a dynamic equilibrium. This study attempts to investigate the distribution and composition of the vegetation and the appearance of the habitat environment at the coastal wetland of Taiwan. According to the results, 173 species belonging to 50 families have been recorded. This indicates that the diversity of the marsh vegetation at the coastal wetland is low. Most of the species belong to Gramineae, Compositae and Cyperaceae. Paspalum vaginatum and Phragmites karka are the most dominant plant at coastal marsh environments. According to the results of detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) and cluster analysis (CA), 16 vegetation types including one subtype and one transitional type are classified. The habitats of these vegetation types can be classified into five types, namely tidal fresh water marsh, fresh water-salt marsh, wet meadow, salt marsh and submerged environment. Most of these vegetation types have only one major dominant species. The distribution of the marsh vegetation features a belting pattern, which is mainly limited by the maximum of their salt tolerance from coastal toward inland, or estuary toward headwaters. Subsequently, it can by influenced by soil moisture and pH value. Furthermore, the vegetations are influenced by many additional environmental factors, resulting in a mosaic distribution of vegetation types. The marsh vegetation is processing at an unstable and developing period. Because the coastal wetland is seriously disturbed by human activities, the environmental variation becomes greater. Therefore, the transitional vegetations were observed frequently. Finally, the development pressure due to economic demand is the major cause that makes coastal wetland disappeared. It is urgently needed to protect this sensitive natural resource.

In this study ferroboron (Fe - 14 at %B) was synthesized in crystalline form (Fe + Fe2B) via electrodeoxidation. For this purpose, Fe2O3 and H3BO3 were mixed in suitable proportions via spex mill. The powder was cold pressed and sintered at 900 &deg / C yielding a two phase structure Fe3BO6 and Fe2O3. The sintered pellets were electro-deoxidized in CaCl2 by applying 3.1 Volts at 850&deg / C for 12 hours. This yielded Fe and Fe2B in proportions slightly deviating from the target composition. The chemical pathway of reduction is inspected by the help of the available thermodynamic data and the x-ray characterization of partially reduced samples. CaO and the formation of Ca3B2O6 were found to be effective in the mid-steps of this electrodeoxidation process.

The aim of this study was cloning of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Bayraktar) Trehalose-6-phosphate synthase gene and examining of gene expression pattern of wheat seedlings in response to salt and drought stress conditions using Wheat GeneChip (Affymetrix). In this study, 10-days old wheat seedlings were subjected to the salt (350 mM NaCl) and drought stress (20% PEG) for 24 hours, then root and leaf tissues were used for wheat TPS gene cloning and microarray studies. RACE (Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends) was used to determine cDNA sequence of wheat TPS gene, TaTPS. The ORF of TaTPS encodes a putative protein of 859 amino acids with a predicted molecular weight (MW) of 96.7 kDa and an isoelectric point (pI) of 5.97. Based on tblastx, TaTPS showed great similarity with other plants TPS genes. In root tissue, expression of TaTPS increased under drought stress while no change was observed under salt stress. In leaf tissue, both salt and drought treatments repressed the expression of TaTPS. Microarray study was used to monitor transcript abundance in salt and drought stressed wheat. Data analyses were determined by using GCOS 1.4 and GeneSpring GX10. The genes encoding ferritin, Lipid transfer protein, LEA/Dehydrin, early nodulin, cold regulated protein and germin like proteins were upregulated at least 10-fold under salt and drought stress conditions. In addition, salt and drought stresses induced the expression of genes identified as DREB, ERF, NAC, MYB, and HSF, suggesting existence of various transcriptional regulatory pathways under salt and drought stresses.

Electrochemical reductions of porous SiO2 pellets and bulk SiO2 plate were investigated in molten CaCl2 and/or CaCl2-NaCl salt mixture. The study focused on effects of temperature, particle size of the starting material, electrolyte composition and cathode design on the reduction rate. The behavior of the cathode contacting materials was also examined. Moreover, cyclic voltammetry study was conducted to investigate the mechanism of the electrochemical reaction. Mainly, XRD analysis and SEM examinations were used for characterizations. The rates of electrochemical reduction were interpreted from the variations of current and accumulative electrical charge that passed through the cell as a function of time under different conditions. The results showed that reduction rate of SiO2 increased slightly with increasing temperature or decreasing the particle size of SiO2 powder. Higher reduction rate was obtained when porous pellet was replaced by bulk SiO2 plate. Use of Kanthal wire mesh around the SiO2 cathode increased but addition of NaCl to the electrolyte decreased the reduction rate. X-ray diffraction results confirmed the reduction of SiO2 to Si in both CaCl2 salt and CaCl2-NaCl salt mixture. However, silicon produced at the cathode was contaminated by the nickel and stainless steel plates which were used as the cathode contacting materials. Microstructures and compositions of the reduced pellets were used to infer that electrochemical reduction of SiO2 in molten salts may become a method to produce solar grade silicon (SOG-Si). In addition, overall reduction potential of SiO2 pellet against the graphite anode and the potential of the cathode reaction at 750&deg / C in molten CaCl2-NaCl salt mixture were determined as 2.3 V (at 1.19 A current) and 0.47 V, respectively by cyclic voltammetry.

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