Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Magister Technologiae: Civil Engineering and Survey, M.L Sultan Technikon, 2002. / The new South African Government that came into power in 1994 faced a daunting task of undoing the political injustices of the past. The government immediately introduced a Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to address these injustices / M

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2008 / Rural sanitation researchers, particularly in the Limpopo Province, have not offered theories in relation to the patterns of the development of rural sanitation. Several researchers have concerned themselves with the need for the solution of water supply but not sanitation services. The present study seeks to enhance the understanding of the dynamics of the patterns of the development of rural sanitation in the Capricorn District Municipality, in particular at the Eisleben Village. This research paper applied an evaluative methodology to assess the impact of VIP sanitation technology at Eisleben Village at Ramokgopa under Capricorn District Municipality in Limpopo Province in comparison to dry sanitation. Supportive cases studies on sanitation delivery in South Africa have also been cited to where both technologies have been applied to assess their impact to the health and dignity of the communities, the environmental impacts. Examples of such case studies included examples of the Mosvold Hospital Sanitation Programme, the Northern Cape Household Sanitation Programme, the eThekwini Water and Sanitation Programme and the Dry sanitation in an urban environment at Weiler’s Farm in Johannesburg. The following five major findings emerged from the study: 1. Sanitation development should be community driven in terms of information, knowledge and decision making. 2. There is need for the vision of health, hygiene and education strategy for water and sanitation. Efficient and effective hygiene education is urgently needed. 3. There is resounding evidence from previous sanitation projects done in various places in South Africa that dry or waterless sanitation has been found to be an adequate sanitation technology that best suits urban, peri-urban and rural areas. 4. There is need to replace VIP with a better technology such as dry sanitation as a matter of urgency to avoid unhygienic and unhealthy conditions due to inadequate VIP sanitation technology. vii 5. Sanitation solution and technology should comply with the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) policies of adequate sustainable water and adequate sustainable sanitation solution, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the German Helmhotz Association HFG’s “concept of integrated sustainable development”. In the main, the study suggests possible strategies and mechanisms to overcome the challenges that are identified in the research, with the idea in mind of contributing in improving sanitation, not only in the Eisleben Village, but rather to all rural communities in the Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Thesis (M. Dev.) -- University of Limpopo, 2016. / In South Africa, particularly in the Limpopo Province, the handling of human excreta and the use of human excreta for food production are still not valued and generally not acceptable. The issue of social acceptance is one of the several issues that must be tackled in order to successfully institute the practice of human waste reuse in agriculture. As such, this study explored the attitudes and perceptions towards the utilisation of urine and faeces as the alternative to chemical fertilizer in a rural agriculture in Ga-Mothapo, Polokwane Local Municipality in Limpopo. The study adopted a qualitative approach using a case study design. Data was collected using face to face interviews. A majority of the households indicated that they are not comfortable with the idea of using human excreta for agricultural purpose. According to them, it was against their cultural beliefs and it is a taboo to use the waste of human as they prefer to use animal waste instead. The health risk and environmental contamination were also highlighted by the households as weighing against the use of human excreta. Even though some respondents mentioned that using human excreta has the potential to enrich their depleted agricultural soils, and that it had the effect of reducing the cost of buying commercial fertilizers, they still felt uncomfortable using it. This study concludes by recommending that there is a need for constant intervention and awareness to address the issue of food security through ecological sanitation which will promote sustainable agriculture by providing soil with nutrients. Keywords: Ecological Sanitation, Human Excreta, Perceptions, Attitudes, Food Security

Technical factors, such as engineering and medical approaches, and non-technical factors, such as education and community participation, were evaluated with regard to how they affect water and sanitation programs. Benefits and limitations of each factor were assessed to determine which limitations significantly impact the effectiveness of programs. With this appreciation of technical and nontechnical factors, case studies of control methods of different diseases were evaluated. This led to recommendations of appropriate mixes of technical and non-technical services for disease control. This evaluation was utilized to develop a planning approach to effectively integrate interagency efforts for the control of multiple diseases. / Master of Science

Despite decades of global efforts to provide the whole of the world’s population with appropriated water and sanitation, these remain one of the biggest challenges of our time, with the gap being even greater in rural areas. Commonly dominated by technological and managerialist solutions, the field of water and sanitation have been subject, since its origins, to rationalities grounded in western knowledge. As a result, approaches to the topic tends to disregard deeper relationships between the social world and its historical, political, economic and cultural realizations. While many discuss water and sanitation in terms of supply, others indicate how current shortcomings are more related to power structures. Universal paradigms in water and sanitation constitutes epistemological hegemony. The present thesis explores, based on a decolonial and Latin-American political ecology framework, how dominant rationalities contribute for a great share of people around the globe to remain without access to water and sanitation. Taking as a case study Brazil’s National Program for Rural Sanitation (PNSR – in Portuguese), the thesis investigates its formulation process to understand how its constitution and final product represent alternative epistemologies, also presenting its relationships with the pursuit of sustainability. Four elements of the PNSR’s formulation are especially highlighted: the engagement with social movements; the openness to a dialogue of knowledges; the participative and qualitative methods; and, the shared approaches to sustainability. Discussions draw upon the importance of questioning dominant epistemologies; recognizing the linkages between health, sanitation, conflict and resistance in rural Brazil; and, constructing sustainability as a space for the encounter of different rationalities. / Mesmo que esforços globais para fornecer água e saneamento adequados a toda a população mundial somem décadas de investimento, estes continuam sendo um dos maiores desafios de nosso tempo, com a lacuna sendo ainda maior nas áreas rurais. Comumente dominado por soluções tecnológicas e gerenciais, o campo da água e do saneamento esteve sujeito, desde as suas origens, a racionalidades alicerçadas em saberes ocidentais. Como resultado, a abordagem do tema tende a desconsiderar relações mais profundas entre o mundo social e suas realizações históricas, políticas, econômicas e culturais. Enquanto muitos discutem água e saneamento em termos de abastecimento, outros indicam como as deficiências atuais estão mais relacionadas a estruturas de poder. Paradigmas universais em água e saneamento constituem uma hegemonia epistemológica. A presente tese explora, a partir de um arcabouço de ecologia política decolonial e latino-americana, como racionalidades dominantes contribuem para que grande parte da população mundial permaneça sem acesso à água e ao saneamento. Tomando como estudo de caso o Programa Nacional de Saneamento Rural do Brasil (PNSR), a tese investiga seu processo de formulação para compreender como sua constituição e produto final representam epistemologias alternativas, apresentando também suas relações com a busca pela sustentabilidade. Quatro elementos da formulação do PNSR são especialmente destacados: o engajamento com os movimentos sociais; a abertura ao diálogo de saberes; os métodos participativos e qualitativos; e, as abordagens compartilhadas para a sustentabilidade. As discussões baseiam-se na importância em se questionar epistemologias dominantes; reconhecendo as ligações entre saúde, saneamento, conflito e resistência no Brasil rural; e, construindo a sustentabilidade como um espaço de encontro de diferentes racionalidades.

Although the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade has generated great interest from foreign aid donors, its impact. in terms of increased service levels has been poor. These disappointing results have been explained by the UN and other donors in terms of inadequate funding and lack of cost recovery, poor operations and maintenance, lack of personnel, unacceptable technology, poor logistics and non involvement of the beneficiaries. However, an alternative explanation revolves around factors contributing to poor project design. These include the lack of understanding of the development process, donor bias and self interest, and poor coordination and commitment by the recipient government. A review of the development and trends of contemporary aid philosophy and its translation in to rural development and water and sanitation projects, which led to the launch of the IDWSSD, provides a number of lessons that can be used to formulate a hybrid model for project design and the sector development process, that defines the relative roles of donors, recipient governments and people themselves. The model is based on coordinated development, community participation, and sector growth from pilot projects to large scale programmes. The developments in the rural water and sanitation sector that took place in Zimbabwe from 1974 to 1987, provide a unique opportunity to test this model using a systems analysis approach. After gaining Independence in 1980, Zimbabwe's development assistance funding grew tenfold with the influx of foreign donors, and major commitments were made by the new Government to rural development and the goals of the IDWSSD. However, the large investments in water and sanitation which included the preparation of a national master plan with external technical assistance, had both positive and negative impacts on the continuing development of the sector, the start of which can be traced back, well before Independence, to small pilot projects sponsored by non government organizations that used appropriate technology developed by the Rhodesian Government. This development process and the changing approach to project design is illustrated by a series of case studies of projects supported by multilateral and bilateral donors, and non government organizations, that were milestones during this period. Finally the project and sector development model is modified based on the practical lessons from Zimbabwe and recommendations for future practice are made together with suggestions for areas of further research.

Water, sanitation and hygiene-related diseases are responsible for 7% of all deaths and 8% of all disability adjusted live years (DALYs), as well as the loss of 320 million days of productivity in developing countries. Though laboratory and field trials have shown that household water treatment (HWT) technologies can quickly improve the microbiological quality of drinking water, questions remain about the effectiveness of these technologies under real-world conditions. Furthermore, the value that rural communities attach to HWT is unknown, and it is not clear why, in spite of the fact that rural African households need household water treatment (HWT) most, they are the least likely to use them. The primary objective of this multi-level study was to assess the post-implementation effectiveness of selected HWT technologies in the Nyanza and Western Provinces of Kenya. The study was carried out in the rainy season between March and May, 2011 using a mixed method approach. Evidence was collected in order to build a case of evidence of HWT effectiveness or ineffectiveness in a post-implementation context. A quasi-experimental design was used first to conduct a Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (KAP) survey in 474 households in ten intervention and five control villages (Chapter 3). The survey assessed the context in which household water treatment was being used in the study villages to provide real-world information for assessing the effectiveness of the technologies. An interviewer-administered questionnaire elicited information about the water, sanitation and hygiene-related KAP of the study communities. A household water treatment (HWT) survey (Chapter 4) was carried out in the same study households and villages as the KAP study, using a semi-structured questionnaire to gather HWT adoption, compliance and sustained use-related information to provide insight into the perceived value the study households attach to HWT technologies, and their likelihood of adoption of and compliance with these technologies. The drinking water quality of 171 (one quarter of those surveyed during KAP) randomly selected households was determined and tracked from source to the point of use (Chapter 5). This provided insights into HWT effectiveness by highlighting the need for HWT (as indicated by source water quality) and the effect of the study households’ KAP on drinking water quality (as indicated by the stored water quality). Physico-chemical and microbiological water quality of the nineteen improved and unimproved sources used by the study households was determined, according to the World Health Organisation guidelines. The microbiological quality of 291 water samples in six intervention and five control villages was determined from source to the point-of-use (POU) using the WHO and Sphere Drinking Water Quality Guidelines. An observational study design was then used to assess the post-implementation effectiveness of the technologies used in 37 households in five intervention villages (Chapter 6). Three assessments were carried out to determine the changes in the microbiological quality of 107 drinking water samples before treatment (from collection container) and after treatment (from storage container) by the households. The criteria used to assess the performance of the technologies were microbial efficacy, robustness and performance in relation to sector standards. A Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) was then carried out in the HWT effectiveness study households to assess the technologies’ ability to reduce the users’ exposure to and probability of infection with water-borne pathogens (Chapter 7). The KAP survey showed that the intervention and control communities did not differ significantly in 18 out of 20 socio-economic variables that could potentially be influenced by the structured manner of introducing HWT into the intervention villages. The majority of the intervention group (IG) and the control group (CG) were poor or very poor on the basis of household assets they owned. The predominant level of education for almost two-thirds of the IG and CG respondents was primary school (completed and non-completed). Though very few were unemployed in IG (8.07%) and CG (14.29%), the two groups of respondents were predominantly engaged in subsistence farming — a low income occupation. With regard to practices, both groups had inadequate access to water and sanitation with only one in two of the households in both IG and CG using improved water sources as their main drinking water source in the non-rainy season. One in ten households in both study groups possessed an improved sanitation facility, though the CG was significantly more likely to practice open defecation than the IG. The self-reported use of soap in both study groups was mainly for bathing and not for handwashing after faecal contact with adult or child faeces. Despite the study groups' knowledge about diarrhoea, both groups showed a disconnection between their knowledge about routes of contamination and barriers to contamination. The most frequent reason for not treating water was the perceived safety of rain water in both the IG and CG. / The HWT adoption survey revealed poor storage and water-handling practices in both IG and CG, and that very few respondents knew how to use the HWT technologies correctly: The IG and CG were similar in perceived value attached to household water treatment. All HWT technologies had a lower likelihood of adoption compared to the likelihood of compliance indicators in both IG and CG. The users’ perceptions about efficacy, time taken and ease of use of the HWT technologies lowered the perceived value attached to the technologies. The assessment of the drinking water quality used by the study communities indicated that the improved sources had a lower geometric mean E. coli and total coliform count than the unimproved sources. Both categories of sources were of poor microbiological quality and both exceeded the Sphere Project (2004) and the WHO (2008) guidelines for total coliforms and E. Coli respectively The study communities’ predominant drinking water sources, surface water and rainwater were faecally contaminated (geometric mean E. coli load of 388.1±30.45 and 38.9±22.35 cfu/100 ml respectively) and needed effective HWT. The improved sources were significantly more likely than the unimproved sources to have a higher proportion of samples that complied with the WHO drinking water guidelines at source, highlighting the importance of providing improved water sources. The lowest levels of faecal contamination were observed between the collection and storage points which coincided with the stage at which HWT is normally applied, suggesting an HWT effect on the water quality. All water sources had nitrate and turbidity levels that exceeded the WHO stipulated guidelines, while some of the improved and unimproved sources had higher than permissible levels of lead, manganese and aluminium. The water source category and the mouth type of the storage container were predictive of the stored water quality. The active treater households had a higher percentage of samples that complied with WHO water quality guidelines for E. coli than inactive treater households in both improved and unimproved source categories. In inactive treater households, 65% of storage container water samples from the improved sources complied with the WHO guidelines in comparison to 72% of the stored water samples in the active treater households. However the differences were not statistically significant. The HWT technologies did not attain sector standards of effective performance: in descending order, the mean log10 reduction in E. coli concentrations after treatment of water from unimproved sources was PUR (log₁₀ 2.0), ceramic filters (log₁₀ 1.57), Aquatab (log₁₀ 1.06) and Waterguard (log₁₀ 0.44). The mean log10 reduction in E. coli after treatment of water from improved sources was Aquatab (log₁₀ 2.3), Waterguard (log₁₀ 1.43), PUR (log₁₀ 0.94) and ceramic filters (log₁₀ 0.16). The HWT technologies reduced the user’s daily exposure to water-borne pathogens from both unimproved and improved drinking water sources. The mean difference in exposure after treatment of water from unimproved sources was ceramic filter (log₁₀ 2.1), Aquatab (log₁₀ 1.9), PUR (log₁₀ 1.5) and Waterguard (log₁₀ 0.9), in descending order. The mean probability of infection with water-borne pathogens (using E.coli as indicator) after consumption of treated water from both improved and unimproved sources was reduced in users of all the HWT technologies. The difference in reduction between technologies was not statistically significant. The study concluded that despite the apparent need for HWT, the study households’ inadequate knowledge, poor attitudes and unhygienic practices make it unlikely that they will use the technologies effectively to reduce microbial concentrations to the standards stipulated by accepted drinking water quality guidelines. The structured method of HWT promotion in the intervention villages had not resulted in more hygienic water and sanitation KAP in the IG compared to the CG, or significant differences in likelihood of adoption and compliance with the assessed HWT technologies. Despite attaching a high perceived value to HWT, insufficient knowledge about how to use the HWT technologies and user concerns about factors such as ease of use, accessibility and time to use will impact negatively on adoption and compliance with HWT, notwithstanding their efficacy during field trials. Even though external support had been withdrawn, the assessed HWT technologies were able improve the quality of household drinking water and reduce the exposure and risk of water-borne infections. However, the improvement in water quality and reduction in risk did not attain sector guidelines, highlighting the need to address the attitudes, practices and design criteria identified in this study which limit the adoption, compliance and effective use of these technologies. These findings have implications for HWT interventions, emphasising the need for practice-based behavioural support alongside technical support.

The Republic of South Africa embarked on devolution of specific powers to municipal authorities due to the fact that municipalities are a sphere of government which is at the door step of the citizens. Among the powers that were devolved was the authority to regulate on the rendering of water and services to communities. From now henceforth in this study, water and sanitation services will be referred to as water services. The rural villages that had no access to water services during the previous dispensation were rapidly rendered with these services when the transformed Department of Water Affairs and Forestry took a decision to provide the services on its own in order to give space for the transformation of the local sphere of government such that these municipal X authorities are able to manage the load of the allocation of such functions mainly and to close the vacuum so that there is no gap as to who should be responsible for water provision in rural villages whilst the restructuring of municipalities to include the rural villages as part of the transformation process takes place. A decline in the pace rendering water services to the previously disadvantaged rural communities was noticed after the devolution of water services to municipal authorities and by implication once hands were changed. This left those rural communities that had no access to water services still without the desired water services and those that had water services provided left midway with dry water schemes and dysfunctional infrastructure. This study therefore seeks to uproot the cause for the deceleration of water services once it was devolved to municipal authorities. This decline was noticed by the researcher hence the study seeks to attempt providing alternatives and lasting solutions primarily because water services are essential services and water is life. The main objective of the study is to investigate factors that cause the deceleration of water supply and the slow movement in the acceleration of sanitation services in order to provide alternatives that may yield results. Given the above broad objective this study further aims at examining the following factors: The correlation in funding made available by the central government and the financial resources available to municipalities to perform the function in order to render this service properly. Technical support available to municipalities. Relevant legislation, its policies and its impact on the implementation of the service XI. The correlation between accountability, democratization and community participation on standards and quality of the service to actual outputs. Improvement of service delivery and its relationship with transparency and efficiency. Relatedness of poverty to non provision of water services. The relatedness of poverty, lack of basic services to influx in the cities. Relatedness of the quality of the water services to the outbreak of diseases

This research paper is a qualitative evaluation of rural resident’s views in Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality regarding the municipalities (BCM) performance in sanitation in rural areas. The study was conducted using interviews and some participant observation as a strategy for data collection. The data collected was analyzed using the basic needs theoretical framework. The study found that sanitation is the least talked about subject because of the stigma attached to it. The study found that Buffalo City Municipality initiatives in sanitation have little impact or has not yet transformed the lives of rural people. It has been found that the municipality is responding slowly in sanitation, and this situation impacts negatively on the lives of rural people as they are exposed to health hazards and diseases. The study questions the sustainability of toilets built in rural areas as many toilets have no roofs and door. It has been found that sanitation is still a challenge in the Buffalo City Municipality as some people still relieve themselves in the bushes. Some people even defecate into plastic bags and then throw the bags as far as they can. The study found that the environment is deeply affected by the lack of sanitation as both air and water are contaminated by waste disposal caused by poor sanitation. The general feeling of the residents of Buffalo City Municipality with regard to sanitation service delivery is that they were not happy at all. The residents are not happy with the state of sanitation services rendered by the municipality. The study calls upon the municipality to speedily address rural sanitation to avoid service delivery protest. The research calls upon organizations and companies to get sanitation issues as part of their function. The research made a number of recommendations in an effort to help municipalities accelerate the delivery of sanitation in rural areas. It is hoped that the recommendations would help the Buffalo City Municipality in ensuring that communities are equipped and empowered to meaningfully participate in making policies, regarding their development. The recommendations will contribute towards encouraging community participation in the decision making within their municipalities. It is the aim of the study for other municipalities to use Buffalo City Municipality example as a benchmark for best practices. In conclusion, the rural areas of Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality need more serious commitment from the municipality regarding sanitation and other basic services.

Thesis (MPA.) -- University of Limpopo, 2017 / The purpose of the study was to explore public perception on how sanitation has effects on the environment in the Polokwane Local Municipality. Quantitative, analytical research was conducted to determine community perceptions regarding the state of sanitation in Polokwane, that is to establish the perception of the effectiveness of the waste and refuse removal programme and to determine the extent of land pollution in the Polokwane Local Municipality. Data collection was done using structured questionnaires in which community members participated in the study. The total number of respondents, who were community members sampled randomly, was N = 136. The study has highlighted the areas of potential on perceptions of the community regarding the state of sanitation in Polokwane and the relationship of the perception, sanitation practices, the effectiveness of the waste and refuse removal programme and the extent of land pollution in Polokwane and settlement type. The findings of the research study include the following:  The study reveals that the Polokwane Local Municipality does not provide adequate sanitation throughout the municipality especially in the rural settlements;  The results reveal that the Polokwane Local Municipality still has a long way in the prevention and control of land pollution and river streams;  The study further finds that there is no frequent waste removal in the municipality especially in the suburban and rural settlement;  Furthermore, results reveal that there is no adequate hygiene education provision in the Polokwane Local Municipality. In conclusion, it is evident that the Polokwane Local Municipality experiences challenges of the provision of sanitation to the communities especially those who live in rural settlements. In the 21st century and two decades after democracy in South Africa, the residents of Polokwane still experiences sanitation challenges that were promised to be addressed in the dawn of democracy in 1994. Those challenges are land pollution, infrequent waste removal, illegal waste dumping, air and land pollution, river and stream pollution, inadequate hygiene education, inadequate sanitation provision in the rural settlement, lack of waste sorting options. The study recommends that the Polokwane local Municipality should provide adequate sanitation services in rural settlement. It should further develop measures to prevent environmental pollution and to foster communities to have a litter-free environment. The study further recommends that the municipality should have a frequent waste removal programme throughout the municipality even in the rural settlement and suburban areas. The municipality should prioritise community awareness campaigns to educate community members about the negative impact of littering. It is further recommended that, in addition to public awareness against littering, rubbish bins should be made available at all public places and street corners.