Phytophthora cinnamomi has been recognised as a key threatening process to Australia’s biodiversity by the Commonwealth’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Despite over 80 years of extensive research, its exact mode of survival is still poorly understood. It is widely accepted that thin- and thick-walled chlamydospores are the main survival propagules while oospores are assumed to play no role in the survival of the pathogen in the Australian environment, yet evidence is limited. The saprophytic ability of the pathogen is still unresolved despite the important role this could play in the ability of the pathogen to survive in the absence of susceptible hosts. This thesis aimed to investigate chlamydospores, oospores and the saprophytic ability of P. cinnamomi to determine their contribution to survival. Phytophthora cinnamomi did not show saprophytic ability in non-sterile soils. The production of thick-walled chlamydospores and selfed oospores of P. cinnamomi in vitro was documented. Thick-walled chlamydospores were sporadically formed under sterile and non-sterile conditions in vitro but exact conditions for stimulating their formation could not be determined. The formation of thick-walled chlamydospores emerging from mycelium of similar wall thickness was observed, challenging the current knowledge of chlamydospore formation. Selfed oospores were abundant in vitro on modified Ribeiro’s minimal medium in one isolate. Three other isolates tested also produced oospores but not in large numbers. Although the selfed oospores did not germinate on a range of media, at least 16 % were found to be viable using Thiozolyl Blue Tetrazolium Bromide staining and staining of the nuclei with 4´, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole.2HCl (DAPI). This indicated the potential of selfed oospores as survival structures and their ability to exist dormantly. The ability of phosphite to kill chlamydospores and selfed oospores was studied in vitro. Results challenged the efficacy of this chemical and revealed the necessity for further study of its effect on survival propagules of P. cinnamomi in the natural environment. Phosphite was shown to induce dormancy in thin-walled chlamydospores if present during their formation in vitro. Interestingly, dormancy was only induced by phosphite in isolates previously reported as sensitive to phosphite and not those reported as tolerant. Chlamydospores were produced uniformly across the radius of the colony on control modified Ribeiro’s minimal medium but on medium containing phosphite (40 or 100 µg ml-1), chlamydospore production was initially inhibited before being stimulated during the log phase of growth. This corresponded to a point in the colony morphology where mycelial density changed from tightly packed mycelium to sparse on medium containing phosphite. This change in morphology did not occur when the pathogen was grown on liquid media refreshed every four days, and chlamydospores were evenly distributed across the radius of these colonies. This trend was not observed in selfed oospores produced in the presence of phosphite. Selfed oospore production was found to be inhibited by phosphite at the same concentrations that stimulated chlamydospore production. Isolates of P. cinnamomi were transformed using a protoplast/ polyethylene glycol method to contain the Green Fluorescent Protein and geneticin resistance genes to aid in future studies on survival properties of the organism. Although time constraints meant the stability of the transgene could not be determined, it was effective in differentiating propagules of the transformed P. cinnamomi from spores of other microrganisms in a non-sterile environment. Two different sized chlamydospores (approximately 30 µm diameter and < 20 µm diameter) were observed in preliminary trials of transformed P. cinnamomi inoculated lupin roots floated in non-sterile soil extracts and these were easily distinguished from microbial propagules of other species. The growth and pathogenicity was reduced in two putative transformants and their ability to fluoresce declined over ten subcultures but they still remained resistant to geneticin. This study has improved our knowledge on the survival abilities of P. cinnamomi in vitro and has provided a useful tool for studying these abilities under more natural glasshouse conditions. Important implications of phosphite as a control have been raised.

BACKGROUND: Alternaria is considered one of the most common saprophytic fungal genera on the planet. It is comprised of many species that exhibit a necrotrophic phytopathogenic lifestyle. Several species are clinically associated with allergic respiratory disorders although rarely found to cause invasive infections in humans. Finally, Alternaria spp. are among the most well known producers of diverse fungal secondary metabolites, especially toxins. DESCRIPTION: We have recently sequenced and annotated the genomes of 25 Alternaria spp. including but not limited to many necrotrophic plant pathogens such as A. brassicicola (a pathogen of Brassicaceous crops like cabbage and canola) and A. solani (a major pathogen of Solanaceous plants like potato and tomato), and several saprophytes that cause allergy in human such as A. alternata isolates. These genomes were annotated and compared. Multiple genetic differences were found in the context of plant and human pathogenicity, notably the pro-inflammatory potential of A. alternata. The Alternaria genomes database was built to provide a public platform to access the whole genome sequences, genome annotations, and comparative genomics data of these species. Genome annotation and comparison were performed using a pipeline that integrated multiple computational and comparative genomics tools. Alternaria genome sequences together with their annotation and comparison data were ported to Ensembl database schemas using a self-developed tool (EnsImport). Collectively, data are currently hosted using a customized installation of the Ensembl genome browser platform. CONCLUSION: Recent efforts in fungal genome sequencing have facilitated the studies of the molecular basis of fungal pathogenicity as a whole system. The Alternaria genomes database provides a comprehensive resource of genomics and comparative data of an important saprophytic and plant/human pathogenic fungal genus. The database will be updated regularly with new genomes when they become available. The Alternaria genomes database is freely available for non-profit use at http://alternaria.vbi.vt.edu.

L'étude des champignons saprophytes tel que Phanerochaete chrysosporium est fondamentale car ces organismes, capables de dégrader la lignine, ont un fort potentiel en biotechnologie. Il a été démontré que la bactérie Sphingobium sp. SYK-6 possède des enzymes (ligE, ligF et ligG) appartenant à la famille des glutathion transférases (GST) qui successivement réduisent le lien éther (rôle éthérase) entre les unités de la lignine et déglutathionylent le produit dérivé conjugué (rôle lyase). Ce travail expose les relations entre la structure et la fonction des LigE, F et G de Sphingobium sp. SYK-6 et de deux classes de GST du champignon saprophyte Phanerochaete chrysosporium : une potentiellement liée aux éthérases (GSTFuA) et une potentiellement reliée aux lyases (GST Xi). Les structures cristallographiques des GSTFuA1, 2 et 3 de P. chrysosporium ont été résolues. L'analyse des modèles a permis de révéler une nouvelle classe structurale de GST avec des propriétés uniques. Ces caractéristiques ont pu être reliées à la fonction de ligandine et au profil catalytique de cette nouvelle classe de GST. Parallèlement, les études structurales des LigE et F de Sphingobium sp. SYK-6 sont en voie d'achèvement. La structure cristallographique de la GSTX1 de P. chrysosporium présente des caractéristiques structurales spécifiques qui nous ont conduit à la proposer comme leader d'une nouvelle classe structurale nommée Xi. L'enzyme ne présente pas d'activité lyase vis-à-vis des substrats des LigG, mais en revanche possède une fonction hydroquinone réductase (GHR). Parallèlement, la LigG a été étudiée, et s'apparente structuralement et fonctionnellement la classe Oméga des GST / Phanerochaete chrysosporium is a very interesting saprophytic fungus because it decays wood, by degrading lignin while leaving cellulose which is a renewable source of energy. The soil bacterium Sphingobium sp. SYK-6 possesses enzymes (LigE, LigF and LigG) that cleave the beta-aryl ether linkage of lignin model compounds. LigE and LigF are glutathione dependent enzymes that reduce the ether bond (etherase activity) and LigG catalyzes the elimination of glutathione (lyase activity). This study presents the structure-function relationships of Lig enzymes and of two new classes of GST from P. chrysosporium : one potentially related to LigE (GSTFuA) and one potentially connected to LigG (GST Xi). The crystallographic structures of GSTFuA1, 2 and 3 from P. chrysosporium were solved. The analysis of the models reveals a new structural class of GST with unique properties. These characteristics could be connected to the ligandin function and to the catalytic pattern of this new class of GST. In parallel, structural studies of LigE and LigF from Sphingobium sp. SYK-6 are nearly completed. The crystallographic structure of the GSTX1 from P. chrysosporium exhibits specific structural properties which allowed us to define a new structural class (Xi) in the GST superfamily. The enzyme is a S-glutathionyl-(chloro)hydroquinone reductase (GHR) that does not present a lyase activity with LigG substrate. In parallel, high resolution structure of LigG was obtained; this enzyme can be related structurally and functionally to the GST Omega class