Forbearance is defined for the purpose of the present dissertation as, “the attempt to suppress the visible signs of negative emotion (i.e., emotional expression) and visible behaviors (i.e., the expression of negative vengeful or avoidant motives) in response to a hurt or offense, often (but not always) for the sake of group harmony.” I reviewed the literature on forbearance and cross-cultural studies in suppression of emotion or emotional expression under the framework of New Big Five personality processes and cultural models of self and relating. Then I offered three propositions about forbearance. Furthermore, I collected three samples and described four studies to develop and test the construct validity of Forbearance Scale as well as the Group-Harmony Forbearance Index. Last but not least, I discussed implications for future research and practice related to forbearance.

Racial stereotypicality refers to the degree to which an individual looks like a "typical" member of their ethnic or racial group by considering multiple phenotypical features such as skin tone and nose width. Prior studies have utilized real and photoshopped images to assess perceptions of individuals high in racial stereotypicality. However, no known studies have allowed participants to engage in the self-assessment of their own facial features outside of skin-tone. In the present study, I develop and investigate the underlying structure of a scale which allows Black individuals to self-assess their perceived degree of racial stereotypicality. I accomplished this by developing items, soliciting expert feedback, conducting cognitive interviews, disseminating the proposed scale, and conducting an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on a sample of 308 Black adults. EFA results produced a three-factor structure influenced by item wording and reverse coding. Findings also indicated that items which assessed one's overall degree of stereotypicality loaded onto a singular, separate factor as originally theorized. Results suggest that reverse coding, item wording, and response labeling may influence factor structure and negatively impact scale validation procedures. Additionally, items assessing overall stereotypicality may address something distinctly different from other items which assess individual features. Therefore, perceived overall racial stereotypicality should be further tested and considered in future research since it performed fairly during exploratory analysis, aligns with proposed theory, and ultimately homes in on perceptions that may have major implications for understanding how Black phenotypical features impact the lives, outcomes, and experiences of Black individuals.

No description available.

Four studies (focus groups, exploratory and confirmatory analysis, and follow-up interviews) were designed to investigate people's experiences of biculturalism, particularly as they related to ethnic identity, identity conflict and integration, and hybridity, and to develop a new instrument that would better tap at the concept of biculturalism. Previous literature conducted by Benet-Martinez (2002, 2005) identified two relevant axes for bicultural identity: conflict-harmony and distance-overlap, while Yip (2005), Phinney (1991) and Noels (2004) emphasized the role of context for biculturals. We identified five interrelated dimensions, which provide a better understanding of the experiences of biculturalism. These dimensions are conflict (a perceived discord between the two cultures), monocultural orientation (the desire to be part of only one of the two cultures), flexibility (the alternation of behaviours and attitudes depending on the context), compatibility (perceived congruence between the two cultures) and hybridity (the blend of the two cultures to create one). A new instrument, the Bicultural Identity Orientation Scale, was developed based on the literature review and the anecdotal evidence provided by the participants. The instrument showed validity and reliability. The implications and future directions are discussed in light of the findings.

Brand equity is perhaps the most important marketing concept in both academia and practice. The term came into use during the late 1980s; and the importance of conceptualizing, measuring, and managing brand equity has grown rapidly in the eyes of practitioners and academics alike. This has resulted in several often-divergent view-points on the dimensions of brand equity, the factors that influence it, the perspectives from which it should be studied, and the ways to measure it. Many different definitions and ways to measure brand equity have been proposed, and most of them are based upon the definition: the added value with which a given brand endows a product. The two most influential conceptualizations of brand equity are Aaker and Keller. Aaker defines brand equity as a set of brand assets and liabilities linked to a brand, its name and symbol, that add to or subtract from the value provided by a product or service to a firm and/or to that firm’s customers. Keller defines consumer-based brand equity (CBBE) as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. Currently, all research on brand equity has used the same conceptualization of the construct based on previously determined dimensions with no attempt to argue their validity. Given the importance of the concept of brand equity in marketing, as well as the need for the measurement of brand equity, the literature lacks an empirically based consumer-perceived brand equity scale. Since the brand is the consumer’s idea, the consumer is an active participant in the creation of equity for the brand. So if we want to understand and manage the intangible equity directly, we have to have the consumer’s help. This dissertation enriches and strengthens the current knowledge on brand equity by developing a new conceptualization and scale determined by dimensions that consumers perceive. The new Consumer-Perceived Consumer-Based Brand Equity Scale is made up of five dimensions: quality, preference, social influence, sustainability, and leadership. Previous conceptualizations of brand equity have discussed dimensions that are consumer descriptors. Since perceived brand equity is the value that consumers perceive in the brand, this conceptualization presents dimensions that are brand characteristics. The new robust scale contributes both to the theoretical understanding of consumer-based brand equity measurement, as well as assisting managers, or brand ambassadors, in measuring brand equity and developing successful brand strategies. The value of a consumer-perceived, consumer-based brand equity scale suggests a number of new directions for study and elaboration in what is certain to be a compelling stream of research with vast implications for both theory and practice.

The purpose of this study was to develop an instrument to measure healthcare professionals’ knowledge and attitudes about near-death experiences (NDEs) that would demonstrate acceptable psychometric properties. In consultation with a focus group of six NDE experts, I developed the 50-item Knowledge and Attitudes toward Near-Death Experiences Scale (KANDES), including the 24-item KANDES–Attitude subscale (KANDES-A) and the 26-item KANDES–Knowledge subscale (KANDES-K). Including a pilot administration in which feedback indicated no need for revision, a total of 256 professional and student counselors completed the KANDES. Separate reliability and validity analyses were conducted for each subscale. For the KANDES–A, Cronbach’s alpha was .909, and Pearson’s r for test-retest was .748, both indicating acceptable reliability. An exploratory factor analysis indicated four factors to retain and yielded a factor solution that explained 54.87% of the variance, an acceptable amount of variance to substantiate construct validity. For the KANDES–K, Cronbach’s alpha was .816, indicating acceptable reliability. For each of the scale’s three domains, Cronbach’s alpha was .816 for Domain 1: NDE Content, .817 for Domain 2: NDE Aftereffects, and .631 for Domain 3: Experiencer Characteristics, indicating acceptable reliability. Pearson’s r for test-retest on the total KANDES–K was .812, further demonstrating acceptable reliability.

This thesis focuses on conceptualizing and measuring brand identity in services. The lack of a wider-accepted measure of brand identity is surprising given that it a) provides meaning to the brand, makes it unique and communicates what the brand stands for (Rosengren et al., 2010), and b) is the driver of one of the four principal dimensions of brand equity, namely, brand association (Keller, 1993). Despite its acknowledged importance, brand identity measurement has received remarkably little attention, and efforts to develop a valid and comprehensive measure have been limited. While prior work on brand identity has proposed some conceptual models highlighting different facets that contribute to brand identity development, the majority of these models have not been subjected to empirical testing. This raises concerns over their robustness and validity. More importantly, the applicability of these models to a service context is not clear. For instance, the role of consumers, who participate in the service production process and interact frequently with the service providers, is hardly considered in the prior frameworks. In summary, the dearth of research studies accounting for the consumer perspective of brand identity, along with the lack of a valid and comprehensive scale to measure service brand identity, motivated this research. This thesis thus aims to, first, review and refine the concept of brand identity to account for the consumer perspective of this construct and then develop a multidimensional scale to measure service brand identity and identify its key dimensions. To fulfill the research aims, Churchill‟s (1979) paradigm was followed in conjunction with DeVellis (2003) and other scale development studies (Brakus et al., 2009; Lundstorm & Lamont, 1976). This thesis employed both qualitative and quantitative research methods to achieve the research aims. Qualitative research was undertaken to gain additional insights into the construct (e.g. consumer perspective) and to generate and purify the initial scale items. Quantitative methods were then adopted to validate and establish the final scale. Guided by the aforementioned research design, this thesis developed a service brand identity (SBI) scale consisting of five dimensions labelled: process identity, organization identity, servicescape identity, symbolic identity and communication identity. The analysis confirms that the scale is reliable, valid, and parsimonious. Further, the scale application is demonstrated by assessing and empirically establishing the association between service brand identity and brand trust and loyalty. The results support the proposition that the consumer perspective is important in understanding and developing brand identity in a service context. Relatedly, it is also shown that service elements, such as the servicescape and service process, play a key role in developing a strong brand identity for services. The key contribution of this study is the development of a psychometrically valid and reliable scale. This research extends the literature on brand identity (Upshaw, 1995; Aaker, 1996; De Chernatony, 1999; Kapferer, 2000; Burmann et al., 2009; da Silveira et al., 2013) to include the service domain which has to date not received much research attention in branding. It proposes and empirically establishes two new dimensions of service brand identity (Process Identity and Servicescape Identity) which have not been highlighted in extant brand identity literature. In addition to this, this thesis provides a much-needed consumer perspective on brand identity and its components, thereby responding to calls for more research on marketing constructs to account for the consumer perspective (Rust, 1988; Payne et al., 2009; Arnould et al., 2006). In this regard, this study is among the first to empirically link consumer-based variables to a specific brand identity scale.

Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985), the motivation of sports coaches and the development of the Coach Motivation Questionnaire (CMQ) are the subject of this thesis. Motivation contributes to the way in which people think, feel, and act, and is therefore a central issue in the study of psychology (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). The motivational sequence (Vallerand, 1997) suggests that coaches’ motivations influence their behaviours, which subsequently have an effect on their athletes’ perceptions of the motivational climate. In the sport domain, the coach-athlete relationship is one of the most important influences on athletes’ motivation and subsequent performance (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). Nevertheless, while there is much research concentrating on the impact of coaching behaviours on athletes’ perceptions and performance, little thought seems to have been given to the coaches’ needs themselves (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). Following previous work with athletes (e.g., Frederick-Recascino & Schuster-Smith, 2003), the motives and motivational styles of coaches should be related to how they behave within the coaching environment (Frederick & Morrison, 1999). In other words, why coaches coach should influence how coaches coach. The present investigation was conducted to further research and understanding of coach motivation. In the pursuit of this aim, the following three studies were conducted. In Study 1, the motivation of Australian coaches was examined, with a view to informing the development of a valid measurement tool. Employing a qualitative methodology, 13 coaches from different sports and levels of competition participated in semi-structured interviews. Inductive content analysis of the interview transcripts yielded four key dimensions: (a) connection with sport, (b) coach and athlete development, (c) external influences, and (d) internal motives. Overall, SDT appeared to be a useful lens for understanding the data and the existence of multiple forms of motivation were discussed. Study 2 involved the development and pilot testing of a pool of potential items for the CMQ. These items reflected each of the six forms of motivation as conceptualised in SDT, and were designed to be broad and applicable to a wide range of coaches and coaching scenarios. Coaches (N = 86) completed the extended version of the CMQ online, and were requested to respond to two open-ended questions designed to gauge the face validity and general clarity of the questionnaire content. Results suggested that motivation factors were internally consistent, however empirical and qualitative feedback suggested the adaptation of one item for conceptual clarity and the removal of a second item resulting in the CMQ-41. The psychometric properties of the CMQ were examined in Study 3. Coaches (N = 556) completed an online questionnaire package that included the CMQ and measures of psychological needs, goal orientation, and well-being. Examination using CFA produced a 22-item measure with good model fit. Further evaluation produced preliminary evidence for the scale’s validity and reliability. The implications of these results for researchers and practitioners are discussed. Directions for research concerning coach motivation, SDT, and the coach-athlete performance relationship are also highlighted.

It has been demonstrated that people often feel happier, healthier, and more relaxed after a vacation. However, there is still lack of research on how people perceive the benefits of travel and how these perceptions influence their travel behavior. Thus, the primary purpose of this research was to examine the effects of perceived tourism benefits on travel behavior based on the model of attitude importance. Since existing scales of tourism benefits failed to incorporate some important items or factors, particularly the health benefits of tourism, this dissertation involved three online panel surveys, including: (1) a preliminary study (n=566) to elicit new benefit items, (2) a pilot study (n=434) to trim down the number of items, and (3) a main survey (n=559) to finalize the scale. As a result, several items associated with health benefits were elicited from the preliminary study; in the later stages of scale development, these items were identified and validated as a convergent dimension of perceived health benefits. Further, several hypotheses pertaining to the effect of perceived tourism benefits and the applicability of the attitude-importance model in tourism were tested. The results showed that: (1) the premise of the attitude-importance model that important attitudes can instigate the process of knowledge accumulation was supported; (2) the applicability of the attitude-importance model in tourism was supported; (3) the three factors of perceived tourism benefits – experiential, health, and relaxation benefits, had positive effects on travel behavior through attitude importance. These results had theoretical and practical implications. First, while previous tourism studies on tourists’ information search have tended to incorporate information search behavior in the context of vacation planning, this research demonstrated that the accumulation of product-related knowledge can be on a regular basis. Second, while previous tourism studies have a strong preference for the evaluative features of attitudes, this research demonstrated that attitude importance as a dimension of attitude strength is relevant in tourism. Finally, the experiential, health, and relaxation benefits were shown to have positive effects on travel behavior, which indicates that the tourism industry can encourage people to travel more by convincing them taking vacations is beneficial.

The Multidimensional Model for Coping with Bullying (MMCB; Parris, in development) was conceptualized based on a literature review of coping with bullying and by combining relevant aspects of previous models. Strategies were described based on their focus (problem-focused vs. emotion-focused) and orientation (avoidance, approach – self, approach – situation). The MMCB provided the framework for the development of the Coping with Bullying Scale for Children (CBSC; Parris et al., 2011), which was administered as part of a research project in an urban, southeastern school district. The Student Survey of Bullying Behaviors – Revised 2 (SSBB-R2; Varjas et al., 2008) and the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd Edition (BASC-2; Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2004) also were completed. The first research aim was to examine the factor structure of the CBSC in relation to the MMCB and investigate the relationship between coping style and student outcomes of depression, anxiety, and social stress. This study also examined the relationships between coping, victimization, and student engagement in bullying behavior, as well as the moderating effect of age, gender, and ethnicity on these relationships. The fourth research question was is there a relationship between student coping with bullying and their perceptions of control or self-reliance? Data analysis resulted in a four factor coping structure: constructive, externalizing, cognitive distancing, and self-blame. Externalizing coping was found to be a predictor of depression while constructive and self-blame coping was associated with more social stress. Self-blame also predicted higher rates of anxiety. Results indicated that more frequent victimization predicted the use of constructive and self-blame strategies, while students more often engaged in bullying behaviors indicated a higher use of externalizing and self-blame. Gender, age, and ethnicity were not found to be associated with levels of victimization, bullying behaviors, or the use of any of the four types of coping. Further, these demographic variables did not moderate the relationship between victimization and coping or bullying and coping. Finally, feelings of control were not associated with student coping; however, more self-reliance was predictive of constructive coping, cognitive distancing, and self-blame. Implications for future research and interventions for students involved in bullying are discussed.