<p>In a time of global environmental problems due to overuse of fossil fuels, and a subsequent depletion of the supplies, hydrogen is considered as one of the most important renewable future fuels for use in clean energy systems with zero greenhouse-gas emission. Hydrogen storage is the main issue that needs to be solved before the technology can be implemented into key areas such as transport. The high energy density, good stability and reversibility of metal hydrides make them appealing as hydrogen storage materials. In this thesis research on synthesis and hydrogen absorption properties for intermetallic compounds based on scandium and aluminium is reported. The compounds were synthesized by arc melting or induction melting and exposed to hydrogen in a high pressure furnace. Desorption investigations were performed by thermal desorption spectroscopy. The samples were analyzed by x-ray powder diffraction and electron microscopy. ScAlNi, crystallizing in the MgZn2-type structure (space group: P63/mmc; a = 5.1434(1) Å, c = 8.1820(2) Å), was found to absorb hydrogen by two different mechanisms at different temperature regions. At ~120 °C hydrogen was absorbed by solid solution formation with estimated compositions up to ScAlNiH0.5. At ~500 °C hydrogen was absorbed by disproportionation of ScAlNi into ScH2 and AlNi. The reaction was found to be fully reversible due to destabilization effects which lowered the decomposition temperature of ScH2 by ~460 °C.</p>

In a time of global environmental problems due to overuse of fossil fuels, and a subsequent depletion of the supplies, hydrogen is considered as one of the most important renewable future fuels for use in clean energy systems with zero greenhouse-gas emission. Hydrogen storage is the main issue that needs to be solved before the technology can be implemented into key areas such as transport. The high energy density, good stability and reversibility of metal hydrides make them appealing as hydrogen storage materials. In this thesis research on synthesis and hydrogen absorption properties for intermetallic compounds based on scandium and aluminium is reported. The compounds were synthesized by arc melting or induction melting and exposed to hydrogen in a high pressure furnace. Desorption investigations were performed by thermal desorption spectroscopy. The samples were analyzed by x-ray powder diffraction and electron microscopy. ScAlNi, crystallizing in the MgZn2-type structure (space group: P63/mmc; a = 5.1434(1) Å, c = 8.1820(2) Å), was found to absorb hydrogen by two different mechanisms at different temperature regions. At ~120 °C hydrogen was absorbed by solid solution formation with estimated compositions up to ScAlNiH0.5. At ~500 °C hydrogen was absorbed by disproportionation of ScAlNi into ScH2 and AlNi. The reaction was found to be fully reversible due to destabilization effects which lowered the decomposition temperature of ScH2 by ~460 °C.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Brigham Young University. Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 86-88).

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京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第21788号 / 工博第4605号 / 新制||工||1717(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科物質エネルギー化学専攻 / (主査)教授 近藤 輝幸, 教授 辻 康之, 教授 大江 浩一 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

<p> New complexes formed between U(VI), Th(IV) and Sc(III) and tropolone have been prepared. These include the solvates UO2T2⋅X and ThT4⋅X (T = the tropolone anion; X =H2O and CH3OH), and the unsolvated chelate Sc3⋅. Some U(VI), Th(IV) and Sc(III) tropolonates reported in the literature have been re-examined and found to be incorrectly formulated.</p> <p> The adduct chelates UO2T2⋅HT, ScT3⋅HT and the previously unreported ThT4⋅HT have been prepared. Evidence has been presented for hydrogen-bonding in the additional monodentate tropolone ligand.</p> <p> The thermal conversion of the above solvates and adducts to yield UO2T2, ThT4 and ScT3 has been described.</p> <p> The ability of tropolone and other bidentate ligands to displace the water molecule in UO2T2⋅H2O and ThT4⋅H2O, and the addition of such ligands to ScT3, has been studied.</p> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

This dissertation addresses the exohedral cage functionalization and potential applications of the Sc₃N@C₈₀ and Sc₃N@C₇₈ trimetallic nitride endohedral metallofullerenes. In addition, this dissertation discusses miscellaneous research that is relevant to the aformentioned metallofullerenes and their applications, such as the discovery of a new cage isomer <i>(D_5h)</i> of Sc₃N@C₈₀, the synthesis of Lu₃N@C₈₀ as a novel X-ray contrasting agent, and the synthesis of Sc₃¹⁵N@C₈₀ with ¹⁵N₂ gas. The first derivative of Sc₃N@C₈₀ was synthesized by functionalizing the exterior of the cage via a [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction with a ¹³C-labeled intermediate. Addition occurred across the [5,6] ring-juncture of the cage to form a mono-adduct, which has a mirror plane of symmetry as observed from the time-averaged ¹³C NMR spectrum. The structure of the mono-adduct was confirmed by X-ray crystallography. Diethyl and dibenzyl malonate adducts of Sc₃N@C₈₀ were synthesized, in addition to a ¹⁵N-labeled terminal amine derivative. Water-soluble metallofullerenols, Sc₃N@C₈₀(OH)_~10(O)_~10, were synthesized from polyanionic intermediates. The Sc₃N@C₇₈ metallofullerene was derivatized with a ¹³C-labeled reagent to afford mono-, di- and tri-adducts. A single structural isomer of the mono-adduct was found, while several isomers of the di- and tri-adducts were observed by HPLC. ¹³C and ¹H NMR data of the mono-adduct support a structure that results from addend addition to an asymmetric site on the C₇₈ carbon cage. The HPLC isolation and characterization of Lu₃N@C₈₀ is discussed. When irradiated with X-rays, Lu₃N@C₈₀ provided a small level of contrast that can only be attributed to the large atomic number (Z) of the lutetium atoms. Mixed-metal species that contains gadolinium and lutetium or holmium and lutetium could be employed as multifunctional contrasting agents for X-ray, MRI and radiopharmaceuticals, thereby eliminating the need for three separate agents. A new cage isomer of the Sc₃N@C₈₀ metallofullerene was synthesized and partially isolated by HPLC. This carbon cage possesses <i>D_5h</i> symmetry, as indicated by the time-averaged six line ¹³C NMR spectrum with a 1:2:2:1:1:1 ratio. The internal metal-nitride cluster of Sc₃N@C₈₀ was synthesized with a ¹⁵N-label for studying the motion(s) of the cluster (within the carbon cage) at various temperatures using ¹⁵N NMR spectroscopy. / Ph. D.

Endohedral metallofullerenes (EMF) have attracted increasing attention during past decades for their potential applications in the fields of biomedicine and nanomaterials. Trimetallic nitride template endohedral metallofullerenes (TNT EMFs) are some of the most promising fullerene-based materials (e.g., as MRI and X-ray contrast agents) because of their high yields compared to classic endohedral metallofullerenes. This dissertation addresses the chemical reactivity and regioselectivity of TNT EMFs. Based on the extraordinarily high stability of TNT EMFs relative to empty cage fullerenes and classic endohedral metallofullerenes, macroscopic quantities of high purity TNT EMFs were obtained directly from crude soot in a single facile step by using a cyclopentadiene-functionalized resin to trap the more reactive species via Diels-Alder reactions, allowing the TNT EMFs to pass through. We also developed a support-free chemical separation method of TNT EMFs from Sc- and Lu-based soot extract that makes use of the differing solubilities of unreacted TNT EMFs versus 9-methylanthracene-derivatized empty cage fullerenes. The exohedral functionalization of metallofullerenes can fine-tune their chemical and physical properties. The first N-methylpyrrolidino derivatives of TNT EMFs (Ih Sc3N@C80 and Ih Er3N@C80) were synthesized via 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of N-methylazomethine ylides (Prato reaction). The demonstration of planar symmetry in the N-methylpyrrolidino derivatives by 13C NMR spectroscopy suggested that the reaction exclusively took place at the 5,6-ring junction. However, both 5,6-ring and 6,6 ring junction adducts were obtained when Ih Sc3N@C80 reacted with N-triphenylmethyl-5-oxazolidinone, as characterized by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. The kinetically favored 6,6-ring junction adduct was converted to the thermodynamic product, the 5,6-ring junction adduct, upon thermal equilibration. The synthesis of pyrrolidino derivatives was also extended to two other Sc-based TNT EMFs, D5h Sc3N@C80 and Sc3N@C78. The reactivity and regioselectivity of D5h Sc3N@C80 and Sc3N@C78 were demonstrated by NMR spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography and theoretical calculations. Another type of reaction, the Bingel-Hirsch cyclopropanation was carried out with D3h Sc3N@C78 for the first time, yielding a single Cs-symmetric monoadduct and a dominant C2v-symmetric diadduct for the first time. The symmetric diadduct clearly demonstrates the remarkable regioselectivity control exerted by the encapsulated Sc3N cluster. We employed a LUMO electron density surface computational approach to predict multiadduct docking sites on the ellipsoidal fullerene cage surface. We also successfully synthesized the first derivative of a non-IPR fullerene, the diethyl malonate derivative of Sc3N@C68 by a Bingel-Hirsch reaction. The reactivity and regioselectivity of Sc3N@C68 were investigated by NMR spectroscopy and theoretical calculations. / Ph. D.

Les terres rares (ETR) sont de plus en plus utilisées dans le développement des technologies de dernière génération. Leur usage est sans cesse croissant dans les pays industrialisés. Le Canada s’est récemment tourné vers l’exploitation du scandium (Sc). Il n’existe pourtant aucune donnée de surveillance biologique de l’exposition à ce contaminant et aucune étude toxicocinétique publiée pour ce métal à ce jour afin d’aider à interpréter les données de surveillance biologique. Dans le but d’explorer la toxicocinétique du Sc, des doses de 0,3 ou 1 mg /kg p.c. d’oxyde de scandium (Sc203) ont été administrées par voie intraveineuse (IV), dans la veine jugulaire, à des rats mâles Sprague-Dawley. La voie intraveineuse a été utilisée comme voie de référence et les rats mâles Sprague-Dawley ont été sélectionnés sur la base d’études toxicocinétiques antérieures. Des prélèvements séquentiels de sang sur 14 jours et des excrétas sur 21 jours ont été effectués, et les organes (foie, rate, reins, poumons, cerveau) ont été recueillis après le sacrifice des rats au jour 21. La spectrométrie de masse à plasma à couplage inductif (ICP-MS) a permis la quantification du Sc dans les différents organes et tissus. Les résultats obtenus montrent des différences dans la cinétique en fonction de la dose administrée. Dans le sang, les niveaux maximums ont été observés au premier temps de prélèvement, soit à 5 minutes post-exposition et représentent en moyenne (± écart-type) 1,1 ± 0,96 % de la dose administrée de 0,3 mg/kg p.c. et 0,31 ± 0,14 % de dose de 1 mg/kg p.c., suivie d’une élimination sanguine biphasique. À partir des profils temporels dans le sang, un temps de résidence moyen (MRTIV) du Sc dans l’organisme de 19,7 ± 5,9 et 43,4 ± 24,6 h a été calculé pour les doses de 0,3 et 1 mg/kg p.c. respectivement. Indépendamment de la dose, une rétention tissulaire a été observée en particulier dans le foie (8,9 ± 6,4% pour la dose faible et 4,6 ± 1,1% pour la dose élevée) et les poumons (10,6 ± 6,2% et 3,4 ± 2,3% respectivement) et l’excrétion n’était pas complète à 21 jours. Bien qu’une faible fraction de la dose ait été retrouvée dans l’urine (0,06 ± 0,02% et 0,02 ± 0,005% d’excrétion cumulative sur 21 jours respectivement pour la faible dose et la dose élevée), la voie fécale s’est avérée la principale voie l’élimination du Sc de l’organisme chez les rats, avec une excrétion cumulative sur 21 jours respective de 76,8 ± 5,6% et 23,8 ± 2,3% aux doses de 0,3 et 1 mg/kg p.c.. Ces résultats mettent en exergue l’importance du poumon et du foie comme sites de rétention majeure et questionnent sur le risque toxicologique chez les travailleurs exposés par inhalation. De plus, considérant la faible fraction excrétée dans l’urine, ils remettent en question l’usage de l’urine comme matrice fiable pour le suivi biologique de l’exposition aux ETR. / Rare earth elements (REEs) are increasingly used in the development of emerging technologies. Their use is constantly increasing in industrialized countries. Canada has recently turned to the exploitation of scandium (Sc). However, there are no biological monitoring data on exposure to this emerging contaminant and no published toxicokinetic studies for this metal to date to help interpret biological monitoring data. To investigate the toxicokinetics of Sc, doses of 0.3 or 1 mg/kg bw of scandium oxide (Sc2O3) were injected intravenously (IV), via the jugular vein, into male Sprague-Dawley rats. The IV route was used as the reference route and male Sprague-Dawley rats were selected based on previous toxicokinetic studies. Sequential 14-day blood and 21-day excreta samples were collected, and major organs (liver, spleen, kidney, lung, brain) were collected after sacrifice of the rats on day 21. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to analyze Sc levels. The results obtained showed differences in the kinetics of Sc at the different doses explored. In blood, the maximum levels were observed at the first sampling time, i.e. at 5 minutes post-exposure, and represented on average (± standard deviation) 1.1 ± 0.96% of the 0.3 mg/kg bw dose and 0.31 ± 0.14 % of the 1 mg/kg bw dose, followed by a biphasic blood elimination. From the blood concentration-time profiles, a mean residence time (MRTIV) of Sc in the body of 19.7 ± 5.9 and 43.4 ± 24.6 h was calculated for the 0.3 and 1 mg/kg bw doses, respectively. Regardless of dose, tissue retention was observed particularly in the liver (8.9 ± 6.4% for the low dose and 4.6 ± 1.1% for the high dose) and lungs (10.6 ± 6.2% and 3.4 ± 2.3%, respectively) and excretion was not complete by 21 days. Although a small fraction of the dose was detected in the urine (0.06 ± 0.02% and 0.02 ± 0.005 % cumulative 21-day excretion for the low and high dose, respectively), the fecal route was the main route of elimination of Sc from the body in rats with a cumulative 21-day excretion of 76.8 ± 5.6% and 23.8 ± 2.3% at the 0.3 and 1 mg/kg bw doses, respectively. These results show the importance of the lung and liver as the main retention sites and raise questions about the toxicological risk in workers exposed by inhalation. Moreover, the low fraction of Sc excreted in urine questions its use as a reliable matrix for the biological monitoring of REE exposure.