An area in the northern part of the Moine Thrust Zone of Loch Eriboll and in the NE side of Loch Hope, NW Scotland, has been mapped in the scale of approximately 1:10,560. Detailed measurements have beea made of structures such as foliations and lineations and these have been studied and analysed geometrically in terms of their relative age and the consistence over the whole area. The mapping has also traced the intricate pattern of thrust faults which trend roughly NNE/SSW. These thrust zones delimit different nappes and the deformation aspects of these faults indicate that the rheology of the rocks suffered changes during the thrust belt evolution. The easternmost major thrust zone is considered to have been developed first and clearly shows the characteristics of a ductile deformation zone. This zone is interpreted here as the Moine Thrust Zone, sensu stricto. A conspicuous mylonitic zone lies beneath and trends parallel to the Moine Thrust Zone and is limited in the west by a thrust which carried the mylonites onto clearly non mylonitic rock. The width of the mylonitic zone varies from Loch Hope in the north to the SE end of Loch Eriboll. This width variation is interpreted as due to thickening of the mylonitic zone by effects of folding and also due to the different deformation bands which anastomose and die out. Closely spaced cross sections, transverse to the extension of the belt of deformation are illustrated and discussed. Strain analyses were carried out in two different domains of the mapped area. In the southern half of the area, where the frequency of folds is high, the distribution of fold hinges in sheath or curvilinear folds were used as strain indicators. Models, numerical methods and computer programmes for this strain evaluation have been thoroughly investigated. A detailed description of the methods used and tests performed with the constructed computer programmes is given. The results are analysed in conjunction with the land geology and structure. For the northerly half of the mapped area, strain estimations have been made using the grain shapes of the Paleozoic quartzites which are common in the two lowermost nappes. A new method for fitting the strain ellipsoid using three orthogonal ellipses was devised. A computer programme making use of this method was constructed and applied to the existent data. An alternative solution is also presented for the case where the fitted surface is not an ellipsoid. The strain results with the above methods are compared with those obtained using other published programmes and methods of strain estimation. . Microtextural variations in the Paleozoic quartzites of the northern domain have been studied. A detailed textural description and correlation is made between the textures and the available information on the deformation intensities shown by the quartz grains. An increase in the measured strain intensity is generally accompanied by an increase in the amount of recrystallized new quartz grains. These facts are consistent with the geology and structures of the nappes where sampling was done. Paleostress estimates using recrystallized grain sizes have been performed at 31 localities in the Eriboll and Hope areas. The methodology of particle-size estimation is described in detail. The necessity for a standardization in the methods of particle-size measurement is emphasized with examples. The estimations of the differential stresses are greater in zones of greater relative deformation intensity. Although there are limitations and some adverse criticisms on the reliability of these paleostress estimates, the conclusion reached by this study is that they form a pattern that fits well with the geology and structure of the investigated area. Rheologic considerations on quartz deformation constitutes the last part of the thesis. Deformation maps were constructed for this study using ranges of probable differential stress and the measured size of the newly recrystallized quartz grains. It is concluded that strain is predominantly accommodated by internal mechanisms operated by dislocation processes. It is also inferred that the operative strain-rate for the deformation conditions of this area, is between 10-13s -1 and 10-12s-1.

The aim of this thesis is to establish the evolutionary history of relict talus accumulations in the Scottish Highlands through study of their distribution, morphology, structure and sedimentology, and through dating and pollen analysis of buried soil horizons. Analyses of talus morphology demonstrates that though the investigated slopes comprise a basal concavity and upper straight slope, features hitherto interpreted as characteristic of unmodified rockfall accumulations, there is considerable variability in upper slope gradient. Surface relief indicates widespread reworking by slope failure, gullying and debris flows. Sections through gully-side exposures exhibit up to 3.5 m of stacked debris flow deposits, wash layers and buried soils overlying rockfall deposits, indicating a complex history of sediment reworking. Sedimentological analyses indicate that 27-30% of the talus sediments at one site (Trottemish) comprise fine (< 2 mm) particles representing granular weathering of the rockwall and syndepositional accumulation of both fine and coarse debris. The volume of talus on Trottemish implies an average rockwall retreat rate of c. 0.3 mm yr-1 since deglaciation, of which 0.08-0.09 mm yr-1 reflects granular weathering rather than rockfall. Failure and reworking of talus is inferred to reflect reduced infiltration rates (and high porewater pressures during rainstorms) caused by progressive accumulation of fines. Radiocarbon dating of buried soils indicates that reworking commenced prior to c. 6 cal ka BP, and has been intermittently active during the Holocene. Pollen analyses and charcoal concentration counts provide no evidence for accelerated reworking as a result of anthropogenic interference with vegetation cover, but the timing of reworking events provides support for enhanced activity associated with climatic deterioration after c. 2.7-2.3 cal ka BP. The characteristics of the investigated slopes show that models that treat talus as a free-draining accumulation of rockfall debris have limited applicability, and an alternative model that incorporates progressive reworking by other processes is proposed.

Present day coastal accretion at Tentsmuir is manifest in the form of hummocky dune accumulations along the shoreline. The mode and variability of the distribution of surface sediments by the wind and the magnitude of accumulation of wind laid deposits in the Tentsmuir beach-dune complex is a measure of Aeolian activity in the area. In the Tentsmuir area fine to medium grained well sorted beach sands are entrained by high to moderate energy, seasonal, directionally unimodal to bimodal winds of low variability. During the winter season the dominant winds are from the south west (blowing towards the sea) whereas, generally during the spring the more effective winds are derived from the east (blowing towards land). The bimodal winds are composed of contrasting unimodally directional winds blowing for shorter durations. Daily sea breezes are observed during the summer. Field measurements of sand transport rates, with the aid of sand traps during anemometer determined wind speeds ranging from 4 m s-1 to 20 m s-1, in the study area show that while the onshore transport vector results in rapid foredune development, the longshore and offshore component contributes to a positive beach sediment budget. However, the net beach sediment budget is a complex interplay of Aeolian, wave and tidal processes. Shear velocities on the Tentsmuir beaches ranged from 18.5 cm s-1 to 52 cm s-1 and the focal point, u' and z' values were 1.75 m s-1 and 0.03 cm respectively. In general, the variability of the short-term Aeolian sand transport rates in the Tentsmuir beach-dune subenvironments is controlled by (i) variation in wind velocity, (ii) presence or absence of vegetation, (iii) ground surface moisture, and (iv) the sand size and source limitation. The potential sand input by the onshore winds during the last eleven years is estimated to have been approximately 28,532 m3. During the same period the potential amount of sand blown towards the sea was 109,570 m3. The amount of predicted onshore sediment input (28,532 m3) compares well with the 33,000 m3 of sand estimated to have accumulated in the lee of the beach at Tentsmuir Point The close agreement of the measured and predicted values of Aeolian transport suggests that the White (1979) expression, used in the present study to predict transport rates on the beach, provides fairly reliable estimates. Very high velocity offshore winds (>9 ms-1 produce a shelly deflation surface along the backshore, surface parallel sand sheets and sand strips on the foreshore; adhesion plane bed and adhesion structures along the moist/wet tidal margin and pyramidal dunes (offshore transport across a dune ridge >2.5m high.). Onshore high velocity winds result in the formation of surface parallel sand strips on the foreshore and a high volume of Aeolian sediment accumulation in the backshore and foredune area. Prolonged days of high velocity unidirectional winds result in the formation of barchans. Medium to high wind velocities (~6-9 ms-1) produce ballistically rippled foreshore sand lobes, lee dunes downwind of tidal debris, adhesion structures (offshore/longshore transport) and some sand accumulation in the foredune area (onshore transport). Abundant parallel laminated sand, pinchout laminae, sand lenses, precipitation deposits, trough crossbeds, plant remains at places overlying beach shell layers constitute a prograding coastal dune facies at Tentsmuir.

The potential of geochemical and magnetic measurements in sedimentary provenance studies is evaluated in the River Eden catchment (Scotland), where three principal rock types (basalts, andesites and sedimentary rocks) are petrogenetically, temporally and spatially distinct. The northern part of the catchment, occupied by Lower Devonian andesitic rocks, is separated from the southern part of the catchment, occupied by Upper Carboniferous basaltic rocks, by a valley underlain by more erodable Upper Devonian sandstones. All rock types are partially covered by Quaternary glacial till. These four well distinguished potential sediment sources were expected to robustly fingerprint the source components of the stream sediment transported by the fluvial system defining the River Eden catchment. Mineral composition analysis together with magnetic measurements have enabled the characterisation, differentiation and, therefore, the classification of different groups within all potential sources (rocks and till) in terms of concentration, composition and grain size of Fe-Ti oxides. Stream sediment samples were also characterised using the same approaches. Raw data are analysed and interpreted graphically by scattergrams, and statistically by correlation coefficients, analysis of variance and simultaneous R- and Q-mode factor analysis. A comparison of both source and sediment characteristics is assisted principally by discriminant function analysis which leads to a qualitative estimation of each source contribution to the sediment. Linear programming is then applied in order to model quantitatively the provenance of stream sediment samples. Magnetite is found to be the best provenance indicator in the study area. Basalts have higher concentrations, Ti-content and grain size of magnetite than andesites. Till shows a wide variability in magnetite composition, its concentration being close to that of the andesites, whereas the sedimentary rocks are characterised by the scarcity or absence of magnetite. Oxidation of magnetite, eventually to hematite, is found to occur during rock crystallisation, and alteration under aerial conditions. However, during fluvial transport magnetite transforms to sphene. Despite the chemical alteration of magnetite, an environmentally-consistent qualitative provenance model is derived in this study. The sediment transported by each Eden tributary is found to be mineralogically unique as a result not only of mineralogical differences but also of the mixing proportions of the constituting sources. Although, tributary inputs are recognised downstream the River Eden course, sediment characteristics in the main course tend to be homogenised during transport. Even when magnetic parameters are more discriminating than magnetite composition, the intra-source magnetic variability and principally the magnetic interdependence of the sediment sources significantly hinder successful modelling of mixtures using linear programming methodology. More complex statistical methods and/or more discriminating and independent variables are required to achieve a complete quantitative model of the stream sediment provenance over the whole River Eden catchment.

The study considers the seasonal distribution of non-tidal peak flows on a large number of rivers draining varied catchments across Scotland and Northumberland. Peaks over threshold (POT) flood series from 156 gauging stations are used, and are subject to two quality control measures. Firstly, threshold values are standardised to give 45 peaks over a ten year period and secondly, records are adjusted to compensate for non-stationarity in the sampled data. The database assembled consists of 3458 station-years of record. A comprehensive description of the seasonal patterns found is presented, based on these quality-controlled data and utilising a number of methods of characterisation. Directional statistics are employed to indicate the central tendency of time-of-year values for each station, a six-season analysis gives more detailed information, and the seasonality of large peaks is compared with that of full POT series. Finally, a classification analysis is used to summarise these patterns. These patterns are related to five catchment characteristics: the seasonality of rainstorms; soil moisture deficit lengths; catchment size; lake storage and snowmelt, although the effect of the last of these is unclear as suitable data were not available for analysis. A discriminant analysis is employed to relate the five physical factors to flood seasonality. The study concludes with a discussion on the implications of its findings. A method of assessing seasonal flood risk using POT series is presented, offering an accurate means of relating flood magnitude to recurrence interval for any period of less than one year. The implications of seasonal heterogeneity, both within and between flood records, are also discussed. The suitability of the exponential model for use with POT records is questioned and it is suggested that explicit recognition of the seasonality of flooding may be necessary in order to make accurate design flood estimates.

No description available.

No description available.

Over fifty peaks-over-threshold flood records from across Scotland are analysed for temporal and spatial variability over two standard periods, 1954-92 and 1964-1992, using a number of time series statistical techniques. The results of this analysis demonstrate both clear temporal and spatial patterns in the frequency and magnitude of floods. The period 1964-73 is characterised by decreasing flood frequencies, with the early 1970s standing out as being "flood poor", particularly in the eastern regions of Scotland, whilst the 1950s and more recently, the late 1980s and early 1990s can be characterised as "flood rich". A broadly similar pattern is evident in many flood magnitude series. The influence of climatic variability upon flood records is also examined over the same periods of time, using a regional synoptic classification of daily weather types. The Westerly, Cyclonic and South-Westerly weather types are identified as important mechanisms in initiating Scottish flood events. These weather types also show a strong link with catchment location, with the Westerly type being important in the more westerly catchments, the South-Westerly type being important in the south-west and west whilst flood events in the more eastern catchments are often associated with the incidence of the Cyclonic weather type. The annual frequencies of these three key weather types also show clear patterns of temporal variability. However, a seasonal split of weather type frequencies also reveals some contrasting seasonal trends which are masked within the amalgamated annual series. The most dramatic variability is evident within the time series of the South-Westerly weather type, where frequencies have been increasing steadily since the mid 1970s in all seasons. Recent increases in the incidence of the most frequently occurring weather type - the Westerly - appear to be confined to the winter months (December to February). The relationship between temporal variability within flood series and the climate are tentatively explored through a simple comparison exercise using the two sets of time series plots, linked by information obtained on trigger weather types and dominant seasons of flooding. This process suggests that the relationship between flood series and the climate is a complex one which cannot be adequately explained using the results of this research. More likely other factors, such as precipitation variability, need to be introduced into the equation before a more complete picture is acquired. The possible consequences of the variability detected within flood series are highlighted with reference to flood frequency analysis, a technique which makes the assumption that flood records, and ultimately climatic records, are stationary through time. By splitting individual flood records into hydrologically similar sub-periods, it is revealed that frequency-magnitude relationships may vary considerably, depending upon the period of record used. It is recommended that, in future, hydrologists consider splitting flood series (into hydrologically similar sub-periods or in terms of the weather types linked to each flood) in order to examine the range of frequency-magnitude relationships which exist.

Shetland’s geographical location has long been considered remote or isolated from a centralised Scottish perspective. However, as an island group situated between the neighbouring landmasses of Scotland and Norway, Shetland is directly situated on the maritime highway of the North Atlantic Rim. The mobilising quality of the maritime highway created a path of entry into the islands, allowing the development of locational narratives, but has also resulted in the loss of some of these narratives. This investigation addresses the dynamics of cultural interchange by formulating a theoretical model of the exchange of ‘cultural products’; with particular regard for practices of recording and displaying visual narratives. The ancient capital of Shetland, Scalloway, provides the background for a microcosmic account of Shetland’s wider history and cultural composition and forms the main focus of the thesis. Within this setting the process of cultural interchange can be seen to have been formative in the development of island identity; particularly in traditional practices, occupational forms, dialect, place-names and cultural expressions. The historical account of Scalloway provides material culture evidence for human occupation reaching back to the Bronze Age. Successive ‘layers’ in the archaeological record and officially recorded histories indicate distinct periods pertinent in the development of a local identity; Iron Age, Norse Era, Stewart Earldom and World War Two. Collectively, these periods represent a consecutive process of ‘imprinting’ characteristics upon the local population; including geographical positioning, dialect, political control and shared narrative histories with Norway during the Second World War. However, it can be seen that there is an over-determination of the Norse element of island identity, which finds a greater degree of replication in visual accounts. It is argued in this investigation that this over-determination is a deliberate cultural construct of island identity that is maintained in opposition to Scottish control.

This thesis explores how social and economic change within the the distinctive region of Badenoch compares with similar developments in other parts of the Highlands. It demonstrates that the Highlands were not an isolated periphery by placing localised issues not just within the wider dimension of the British state and empire, but also within the ideological framework that shaped and influenced contemporary thought. Society in Badenoch was divided into three clearly demarcated but inter-woven ranks: the aristocratic Dukes of Gordon, the gentry and the peasantry. The peasant economy operated at subsistence level, primarily pastoral and heavily dependent on a complex system of transhumance. But there was also a thriving cattle-based commercial economy driven by the indigenous tacksmen, who further demonstrated their entrepreneurship through diversification into agricultural improvement, sheep, textiles and timber. The conflicting demands for land, particularly the hill grazings, inevitably created tensions between the social ranks. The Badenoch economy suffered badly from climatic problems and fluctuating market prices, with two major famines occurring before the end of the century. These apart, however, the economy, and the lives of the entire community, experienced gradual improvement, not just through increasing commercialism, but also through the government's military requirements for its imperial and European wars – a massive economic boost across the social spectrum. Change inevitably caused friction between the social classes over issues like rising rents, the appropriation of land (particularly for sheep) and clearances, which, along with the pressures of commercialism and government policy, had almost completely destroyed traditional clan society by 1800. The tacksman class, however, remained dominant despite the challenge to their traditional authority from both the Dukes of Gordon and the increasingly assertive commonalty.