Univerzita Karlova v Praze Přírodovědecká fakulta Studijní program: Vývojová biologie (P1520) Studijní obor: Vývojová biologie (1501V000) Oleksandr Chernyavskiy Zdokonalené metody pro snímání obrazových dat a analýzu tkání a buněk pomocí konfokální a multifotonové mikroskopie Improved Methods of Image Acquisition and Analysis of Tissues and Cells by Confocal and Multi-Photon Microscopy Abstrakt disertační práce Školitel: RNDr. Lucie Kubínová CSc Praha, 2015 Abstract The aim of this study was to develop methods and approaches for image acquisition with subsequent image analysis of data, obtained by confocal and two- photon excitation microscopy as well as their combination, enabling new possibilities of visualization and assessment of information on biological tissues and cell structures in 3D and their measurement. We focused on methods that exploited advantages of confocal and multi-photon excitation microscopy. Our further aim was to demonstrate the applicability of non-invasive approach for in vivo applications, usefulness and the relevance of these methods in several special biological applications with emphasis on improved image acquisition, analysis and evaluation of real biological specimens. The present work was not oriented on just one specific biological problem, but rather to methodological...

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Neste trabalho estudamos uma nova classe de materiais ópticos não-lineares, os cristais orgânicos, que possuem potencial para muitas aplicação em dispositivos. Determinamos diferentes propriedades ópticas lineares e não-lineares de três cristais orgânicos: a l-alanina, a l-treonina e a l-lisina. Esses cristais de aminoácido foram escolhidos por apresentarem propriedades de geração de segundo harmônico (GSH) e por serem materiais nunca estudados sob o ponto de vista da óptica não-linear. Estudamos algumas das propriedades ópticas lineares fundamentais desses cristais biaxiais transparentes, pois deles dependem os fenômenos não-lineares sobre os quais são feitas intensas pesquisas. Determinamos as propriedades lineares como os espectros de absorção, os índices de refração, os eixo ópticos, velocidade de propagação da luz num meio anisotrópico e os limiares de dano por radiação. Posteriormente, determinamos as condições de casamento de fase, a eficiência de GSH, e a auto-modulação de fase. A GSH e a auto-modulação de fase pertencem, respectivamente, a processos não-lineares de segunda e de terceira-ordem. Para o estudo de muitas dessas propriedades foram desenvolvidas novas técnicas experimentais. Uma dessas novas técnicas, a varredura-Z oscilante, teve sensibilidade para determinar, pela primeira vez, o índice de refração não oscilante, vez, o índice de refração não linear desses cristais orgânicos. Além disso, como a todos os processos de caracterização envolveram a preparação de amostras, tivemos a oportunidade de criar procedimentos padrões para manipulação e utilização desses novos materiais. / In this work we studied a new class of nonlinear organic crystals that are potential candidates for devices application. We determined several linear and nonlinear optical properties of three organic crystals: l-alanine, l-threonine and l-lysine. These aminoacid. These aminoacid because their nonlinearities were never studied before. We characterized some of the fundamental linear optical properties of these biaxial transparent crystals, because they have influence on nonlinear phenomena that attracted a lot of research. We determined linear properties like absorption spectra, indices of refraction, optical axes, the light speed propagation in anisotropy media and the optical damage threshold. Subsequently, we determined the phase-matching condition for SHG, efficiency of the SHG and self-phase modulation. The SHG and self-phase modulation belongs, respectively, to the second-order and third-order nonlinear processes. To study several of these properties we had to develop some new experimental techniques. One of them, the oscillatory Z-scan, allows enough sensibility to determine, for the first time, the nonlinear refraction index of these organic crystals. Besides, as all these optical characterization involve the preparation of the samples, we had the opportunity to establishing standard procedures for manipulation of these new materials.

Lasers Raman são dispositivos que proporcionam uma maneira prática de transformar comprimentos de onda fundamentais em novas linhas espectrais via Espalhamento Raman Estimulado (Stimulated Raman Scattering - SRS). Quando combinados com outros processos de conversão não lineares, os lasers Raman fornecem acesso a comprimentos de onda na região do visível no espectro eletromagnético, que de outra maneira seriam de difícil acesso, como o laranja-amarelo, verde-limão e diversas linhas no azul. A grande vantagem dos lasers Raman é a possibilidade de geração de múltiplas frequências a partir de uma mesma combinação de cristais, tornando esse tipo de laser dispositivos baratos e compactos quando comparados a tecnologias como OPO. Neste trabalho um cristal de Nd:YVO4 foi bombeado por diodo, em configuração transversal, sendo o cristal o responsável pela emissão laser e pelo espalhamento Raman. Na primeira parte do trabalho, a cavidade utilizada apresentava alto fator de qualidade para o comprimento de onda fundamental (1064 nm) e foi estudada a operação laser do 1º Stokes (1176 nm) em regimes de operação quase contínua (q-cw) e contínua (cw). Foi explorada a configuração com uma dobra do feixe laser em ângulo rasante na superfície de bombeamento, bem como a configuração com duas dobras nesta mesma superfície (double beam mode controlling - DBMC). Na segunda parte do trabalho, um cristal LBO foi utilizado para a geração do segundo harmônico (SHG) em 588 nm, o que corresponde a um laser laranja-amarelo. Foi utilizada a configuração com uma dobra e operação cw,com a qual a cavidade apresentava alto fator de qualidade tanto para o 1064 nm quanto 1176 nm. Com a configuração de uma dobra, foi demonstrado que o laser Raman opera em multimodo, com uma variedade de modos de Hermite-Gauss que puderam ser selecionados através apenas do alinhamento da cavidade, incluindo o modo TEM00. Com configuração DBMC, o laser apresentou operação estável oscilando o modo TEM00. Em 1176 nm em regime q-cw, foi obtida a potência máxima de 8,2 W por pulso (multimodo) e 11,7% de eficiência óptica de conversão (diodo para o 1º Stokes), e operando em modo TEM00 a potência máxima de 3,7 W por pulso e eficiência de 5,4% foi obtida com a configuração de duas dobras, de maneira que a tecnologia DBMC se mostrou eficiente para geração de um laser robusto e estável operando com o modo TEM00. Em regime cw o melhor resultado em termos de potência e eficiência foi obtido com a configuração de uma dobra, correspondendo a 1,8 W e 7,3% de eficiência com o laser operando em multimodo. Com o laser laranja, foi demonstrada a operação do modo TEM00 para potências de bombeamento abaixo de 14,5 W. A potência máxima obtida em multimodo foi 820 mW correspondendo a 4% de eficiência óptica de conversão. / Raman lasers are devices that provide practical means to shift fundamental laser wavelengths into new spectral lines via Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS). When combined with other nonlinear conversion processes, Raman lasers permit access to hard-to-reach regions of the visible electromagnetic spectrum, for example, orange-yellow, lime-green and several blue lines. The great advantage of Raman lasers is the possibility of generating multiple wavelengths using the same set of crystals, which make these devices compact and practical when compared to other technologies as OPOs. In this work, the Nd:YVO4 crystal was laterally pumped by a diode laser and this crystal was responsible for laser generation as well as SRS. In the first part of this work, the laser cavity presented a high Q factor for the fundamental laser wavelength (1064 nm) and the laser operation at the first Stokes (1176 nm) was characterized under quasi-continuous wave operation (q-cw) and in continuous wave (cw) operation. The grazing incidence geometry of the cavity with a single bounce of the laser beam at the pumped facet of the crystal was exploited, as well as with the double bounce (double beam mode controlling - DBMC) of the laser beam at this same crystal facet. In the second part of this work, a LBO crystal was utilized for the second harmonic generation (SHG) at 588 nm, which corresponds to an orange-yellow laser. The single bounce cavity configuration was utilized under cw operation, which presented high Q factor at 1176 nm and at 1064 nm. With the single bounce configuration, the laser operated in a variety of Hermite- Gaussian transversal modes that could be selected simply by cavity alignment, including the TEM00 mode. With the DBMC technology, the laser presented stable operation of the TEM00 mode. At 1176 nm, under q-cw regime, the maximum output peak power of 8.2 W (multimode) was achieved, corresponding to an optical conversion efficiency (diode to 1st Stokes) of 11.7%, and operation of the TEM00 mode yielded a maximum output peak power of 3.7 W and 5.4% efficiency with the double bounce configuration, hence the DBMC technology showed to be an efficient method for the generation of a stable and robust laser operating with TEM00 mode. Under cw regime, the best result in terms of power and efficiency was obtained with the single bounce geometry, yielding 1.8 W (multimode) corresponding to 7.3% efficiency. For the orange-yellow laser, operation of the TEM00 laser mode was demonstrated for low pump powers up to 14.5 W. The maximum output power achieved in multimode operation was 820 mW and 4% optical conversion efficiency.

Lasers de estado sólido sintonizáveis com uma estreita largura de linha de emissão na região do vermelho são uma alternativa conveniente aos lasers de corante para aplicações em espectroscopia de alta resolução. Nesse trabalho, foram investigados lasers contínuos de Nd:YLiF4 e Nd:YVO4 operando em frequência única na região de 1,32 - 1,34μm, assim como a geração de segundo harmônico (GSH) desses lasers usando cristais de BiB3O6 (BiBO) e KTiOPO4 com inversão periódica de domínios (ppKTP), para a obtenção da emissão no vermelho (0,65 - 0,67μm). Utilizando um laser de Nd:YVO4 operando em frequência única em uma configuração em anel com um cristal não linear BiBO do tipo I, demonstrou-se o recorde de 680mW no vermelho em 671,1nm, sem a utilizaçãde nenhum elemento seletivo. Uma intonia em todo o ganho (~4 nm) foi obtida atravésda inserção de um etalon com filme refletor (R = 40%) e com 100μm de espessura, o que reduziu a potência de saída no vermelho para 380mW no comprimento de onda de maior ganho (671,15 nm). Em 1342nm foi demonstrada uma potência de saída de 1,5W em frequência única quando utilizado um espelho de saída com transmissão de 2%. Foi demonstrado ainda uma ótima eficiência de conversão de segundo harmônico em um laser em anel de Nd:YLF na polarização π (λ = 1321,5nm) quando usando um cristal de ppKTP. Este laser forneceu 1,4W em frequência única no vermelho em 660,5nm. Essa potência é a máxima que pode ser extraída desse laser no segundo harmônico e no fundamental quando utilizado um espelho com transmissão ótima. Utilizando um etalon com filme refletor (R = 25%), o laser pôde ser sintonizado em Δλ ~ 1,6nm. / All solid-state continuous-wave (cw) narrow emission linewidth and tunable red lasers are convenient alternative sources to bulky and expensive dye-lasers for highprecision laser spectroscopy. Single-frequency operation of diode-pumped Nd:YLiF4 and Nd:YVO4 cw ring lasers were investigated in the 1.32 - 1.34μm range, together with their intracavity second-harmonic generation (SHG) to the red spectral range (0.65 - 0.67μm) using either BiB3O6 (BiBO) or periodically-poled KTiOPO4 (ppKTP) crystals. We report on such a single-end diode-pumped Nd:YVO4 unidirectional red ring laser containing a type-I cut BiBO nonlinear crystal, yielding a record of 680 mW of single-longitudinal mode (SLM) red output power at 671.1nm without any intra-cavity etalon. For smooth SLM wavelength tuning over the full gain bandwidth (4 nm), a partially-coated (R = 40%) 100m-thin etalon was found necessary, reducing the maximum SLM power (at 671.15 nm) to 380 mW. At 1342.5nm and with a T = 2% transmission output coupler, the laser provided an optimal 1.5W of single-frequency power. We demonstrate also optimal intracavity SHG of a Nd:YLF ring laser in the π - polarization ( λ= 1321.5nm) using a ppKTP. The laser yielded 1.4 W of singlefrequency red power at 660.5 nm, as much as the maximum fundamental power that can be extracted from the resonator using an optimal output coupler. With a partiallycoated (R = 25%) thin etalon, the laser was tunable over Δλ ~ 1.6nm.

Lasers Raman são dispositivos que proporcionam uma maneira prática de transformar comprimentos de onda fundamentais em novas linhas espectrais via Espalhamento Raman Estimulado (Stimulated Raman Scattering - SRS). Quando combinados com outros processos de conversão não lineares, os lasers Raman fornecem acesso a comprimentos de onda na região do visível no espectro eletromagnético, que de outra maneira seriam de difícil acesso, como o laranja-amarelo, verde-limão e diversas linhas no azul. A grande vantagem dos lasers Raman é a possibilidade de geração de múltiplas frequências a partir de uma mesma combinação de cristais, tornando esse tipo de laser dispositivos baratos e compactos quando comparados a tecnologias como OPO. Neste trabalho um cristal de Nd:YVO4 foi bombeado por diodo, em configuração transversal, sendo o cristal o responsável pela emissão laser e pelo espalhamento Raman. Na primeira parte do trabalho, a cavidade utilizada apresentava alto fator de qualidade para o comprimento de onda fundamental (1064 nm) e foi estudada a operação laser do 1º Stokes (1176 nm) em regimes de operação quase contínua (q-cw) e contínua (cw). Foi explorada a configuração com uma dobra do feixe laser em ângulo rasante na superfície de bombeamento, bem como a configuração com duas dobras nesta mesma superfície (double beam mode controlling - DBMC). Na segunda parte do trabalho, um cristal LBO foi utilizado para a geração do segundo harmônico (SHG) em 588 nm, o que corresponde a um laser laranja-amarelo. Foi utilizada a configuração com uma dobra e operação cw,com a qual a cavidade apresentava alto fator de qualidade tanto para o 1064 nm quanto 1176 nm. Com a configuração de uma dobra, foi demonstrado que o laser Raman opera em multimodo, com uma variedade de modos de Hermite-Gauss que puderam ser selecionados através apenas do alinhamento da cavidade, incluindo o modo TEM00. Com configuração DBMC, o laser apresentou operação estável oscilando o modo TEM00. Em 1176 nm em regime q-cw, foi obtida a potência máxima de 8,2 W por pulso (multimodo) e 11,7% de eficiência óptica de conversão (diodo para o 1º Stokes), e operando em modo TEM00 a potência máxima de 3,7 W por pulso e eficiência de 5,4% foi obtida com a configuração de duas dobras, de maneira que a tecnologia DBMC se mostrou eficiente para geração de um laser robusto e estável operando com o modo TEM00. Em regime cw o melhor resultado em termos de potência e eficiência foi obtido com a configuração de uma dobra, correspondendo a 1,8 W e 7,3% de eficiência com o laser operando em multimodo. Com o laser laranja, foi demonstrada a operação do modo TEM00 para potências de bombeamento abaixo de 14,5 W. A potência máxima obtida em multimodo foi 820 mW correspondendo a 4% de eficiência óptica de conversão. / Raman lasers are devices that provide practical means to shift fundamental laser wavelengths into new spectral lines via Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS). When combined with other nonlinear conversion processes, Raman lasers permit access to hard-to-reach regions of the visible electromagnetic spectrum, for example, orange-yellow, lime-green and several blue lines. The great advantage of Raman lasers is the possibility of generating multiple wavelengths using the same set of crystals, which make these devices compact and practical when compared to other technologies as OPOs. In this work, the Nd:YVO4 crystal was laterally pumped by a diode laser and this crystal was responsible for laser generation as well as SRS. In the first part of this work, the laser cavity presented a high Q factor for the fundamental laser wavelength (1064 nm) and the laser operation at the first Stokes (1176 nm) was characterized under quasi-continuous wave operation (q-cw) and in continuous wave (cw) operation. The grazing incidence geometry of the cavity with a single bounce of the laser beam at the pumped facet of the crystal was exploited, as well as with the double bounce (double beam mode controlling - DBMC) of the laser beam at this same crystal facet. In the second part of this work, a LBO crystal was utilized for the second harmonic generation (SHG) at 588 nm, which corresponds to an orange-yellow laser. The single bounce cavity configuration was utilized under cw operation, which presented high Q factor at 1176 nm and at 1064 nm. With the single bounce configuration, the laser operated in a variety of Hermite- Gaussian transversal modes that could be selected simply by cavity alignment, including the TEM00 mode. With the DBMC technology, the laser presented stable operation of the TEM00 mode. At 1176 nm, under q-cw regime, the maximum output peak power of 8.2 W (multimode) was achieved, corresponding to an optical conversion efficiency (diode to 1st Stokes) of 11.7%, and operation of the TEM00 mode yielded a maximum output peak power of 3.7 W and 5.4% efficiency with the double bounce configuration, hence the DBMC technology showed to be an efficient method for the generation of a stable and robust laser operating with TEM00 mode. Under cw regime, the best result in terms of power and efficiency was obtained with the single bounce geometry, yielding 1.8 W (multimode) corresponding to 7.3% efficiency. For the orange-yellow laser, operation of the TEM00 laser mode was demonstrated for low pump powers up to 14.5 W. The maximum output power achieved in multimode operation was 820 mW and 4% optical conversion efficiency.

Lasers de estado sólido sintonizáveis com uma estreita largura de linha de emissão na região do vermelho são uma alternativa conveniente aos lasers de corante para aplicações em espectroscopia de alta resolução. Nesse trabalho, foram investigados lasers contínuos de Nd:YLiF4 e Nd:YVO4 operando em frequência única na região de 1,32 - 1,34μm, assim como a geração de segundo harmônico (GSH) desses lasers usando cristais de BiB3O6 (BiBO) e KTiOPO4 com inversão periódica de domínios (ppKTP), para a obtenção da emissão no vermelho (0,65 - 0,67μm). Utilizando um laser de Nd:YVO4 operando em frequência única em uma configuração em anel com um cristal não linear BiBO do tipo I, demonstrou-se o recorde de 680mW no vermelho em 671,1nm, sem a utilizaçãde nenhum elemento seletivo. Uma intonia em todo o ganho (~4 nm) foi obtida atravésda inserção de um etalon com filme refletor (R = 40%) e com 100μm de espessura, o que reduziu a potência de saída no vermelho para 380mW no comprimento de onda de maior ganho (671,15 nm). Em 1342nm foi demonstrada uma potência de saída de 1,5W em frequência única quando utilizado um espelho de saída com transmissão de 2%. Foi demonstrado ainda uma ótima eficiência de conversão de segundo harmônico em um laser em anel de Nd:YLF na polarização π (λ = 1321,5nm) quando usando um cristal de ppKTP. Este laser forneceu 1,4W em frequência única no vermelho em 660,5nm. Essa potência é a máxima que pode ser extraída desse laser no segundo harmônico e no fundamental quando utilizado um espelho com transmissão ótima. Utilizando um etalon com filme refletor (R = 25%), o laser pôde ser sintonizado em Δλ ~ 1,6nm. / All solid-state continuous-wave (cw) narrow emission linewidth and tunable red lasers are convenient alternative sources to bulky and expensive dye-lasers for highprecision laser spectroscopy. Single-frequency operation of diode-pumped Nd:YLiF4 and Nd:YVO4 cw ring lasers were investigated in the 1.32 - 1.34μm range, together with their intracavity second-harmonic generation (SHG) to the red spectral range (0.65 - 0.67μm) using either BiB3O6 (BiBO) or periodically-poled KTiOPO4 (ppKTP) crystals. We report on such a single-end diode-pumped Nd:YVO4 unidirectional red ring laser containing a type-I cut BiBO nonlinear crystal, yielding a record of 680 mW of single-longitudinal mode (SLM) red output power at 671.1nm without any intra-cavity etalon. For smooth SLM wavelength tuning over the full gain bandwidth (4 nm), a partially-coated (R = 40%) 100m-thin etalon was found necessary, reducing the maximum SLM power (at 671.15 nm) to 380 mW. At 1342.5nm and with a T = 2% transmission output coupler, the laser provided an optimal 1.5W of single-frequency power. We demonstrate also optimal intracavity SHG of a Nd:YLF ring laser in the π - polarization ( λ= 1321.5nm) using a ppKTP. The laser yielded 1.4 W of singlefrequency red power at 660.5 nm, as much as the maximum fundamental power that can be extracted from the resonator using an optimal output coupler. With a partiallycoated (R = 25%) thin etalon, the laser was tunable over Δλ ~ 1.6nm.

Cette thèse s’intéresse à une technique de caractérisation particulièrement bien adaptée à l’étude de couches diélectriques ultra-minces sur semiconducteurs. La génération de seconde harmonique (SHG) est une méthode très prometteuse, basée sur l’optique non-linéaire. Un laser est focalisé sur l'échantillon à caractériser et le signal à deux fois la fréquence fondamentale est mesuré. Pour les matériaux centrosymétriques comme c-Si, SiO2 et Al2O3, le signal SHG est dû aux défauts et au champ électrique Edc d’interface (induit par les charges préexistantes Qox et/ou piégées au niveau des pièges d’interface Dit). La SHG donne ainsi accès à la qualité des interfaces entre diélectriques/semiconducteurs. Néanmoins, le signal SHG dépend aussi des phénomènes de propagation optique dans les structures multicouches. Pour cette raison, nous avons développé un programme de simulation qui prend en compte les phénomènes optiques et les champs électriques statiques aux interfaces. Nous avons utilisé la SHG pour analyser la qualité de passivation de structures Al2O3/Si préparées avec des procédés différents et nous avons montré une corrélation entre SHG et mesure de durée de vie des porteurs de charges. Les valeurs de Qox et Dit ont été extraites par des mesures de capacité-tension et elles ont permis de calculer le champ Edc. La simulation optique, avec les valeurs extraites de Edc a permis de reproduire les données expérimentales de SHG dans ces structures. La SHG a été utilisée également pour la caractérisation des substrats Silicium-sur-Isolant (SOI). Pour les structures SOI épaisses, la simulation et les résultats expérimentaux ont montré que la réponse SHG est dominée par les interférences optiques (faible impact de Edc). Pour les structures SOI ultraminces, les interfaces sont couplées électriquement et des valeurs de Edc sont nécessaires pour reproduire les données expérimentales par simulation. Cela implique que pour les SOI ultraminces, la SHG pourrait donner accès aux champs électriques au niveau des interfaces d’une manière non-destructive. / This PhD work was developed in the context of research for novel characterization methods for ultra-thin dielectric films on semiconductors and their interfacial quality. Second harmonic generation (SHG) is a very promising non-invasive technique based on nonlinear optics. A laser emitting at the fundamental frequency is incident upon the sample which responds through its 2nd order polarization, generating a signal at twice the fundamental frequency. For centrosymmetric materials such as c-Si, amorphous SiO2 or Al2O3, the SHG signal is mainly due to the defects and to the static electric field Edc present at the interface (due to pre-existing charges Qox and/or photo-injected charge trapping/detrapping at interface traps Dit). Thus, SHG measurement gives access to the quality of dielectric/semiconductor interfaces. Nevertheless, the SHG signal is also dependent on multilayer optical propagation phenomena. For this reason, we have developed a simulation program which accounts for the optical phenomena and the static electric fields at the interfaces. We have used SHG to monitor the passivation quality of Al2O3/Si structures prepared with different processes and showed a correlation between SHG and minority carrier lifetime measurements. Qox and Dit were extracted from capacitance-voltage measurements and helped calculating the Edc values. The optical simulation, fed with known Edc values reproduced the experimental SHG data in these structures. The SHG was also used for Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) substrates characterization. In thick SOI structures, both simulations and experimental results show that the SHG response is mainly given by optical interferences (Edc has no impact). In ultrathin SOI, the interfaces are electrically coupled and Edc is needed as input in the simulation in order to reproduce the experimental SHG data. This implies that in ultrathin SOI, SHG can access the interface electric fields in a non-destructive way.

Optical frequency standards with the reference to a narrow electronic transition of a laser-cooled collection of neutral atomic particles are becoming essential tools of research in modern precision physics experiments. In the core of a building block of an optical frequency standard is the optical continuous wave laser that has a good spectral purity of the emitted light. Such a stable optical oscillator is highly desirable in high resolution spectroscopy, if it emits in a good quality beam at a short visible wavelength. This Master thesis explores efficient techniques for building such an optical frequency source intended for use in the cooling and trapping of Calcium atoms scheme. The strong dipole transition at the blue wavelength in the atomic Calcium is needed to reduce the kinetic energy of atoms by nearly six orders of magnitude. A further reduction in the thermal energy of the laser cooled atoms is required to locate with ultra-high precision the 400 Hz narrow clock transition of the stable 40Ca isotope. The experimental methods that achieve this and approach sub-microkelvin temperature of the laser cooled bosonic isotopes of alkaline earths are inspected. The blue laser with a uniform intensity distribution in the beam is useful to maintain the trapped number of cold atoms during these experiments. The spectroscopic properties of the relative transitions in Calcium atom are also reviewed following relevant publications in the area. The constructed blue laser can be used as a primary wavelength source in the lasers network for cooling and trapping of Calcium atoms. These experiments will constitute part of the project to build an optical atom clock referenced to 40Ca narrow linewidth transition. The blue laser is constructed by generating second harmonic in a Potassium Niobate crystal, which is temperature controlled to use a type-I noncritical phase-matching of the optical nonlinear process. The power of the intracavity-generated second harmonic depends on the resonance properties of the optical resonator where this nonlinear crystal is placed. The study is aimed at characterising the designed optical resonator and the experimental parameters that describe it. The formula is derived that relates the resonance power enhancement coefficient with finesse and the power coupling contrast of a passive optical cavity. The obtained relationship is verfied during the experiments. The produced efficiency of the intracavity second harmonic generation is approx. 0.0023 mWblue/(mWred)2. The research work also examines the noise characteristics of the infrared diode laser that is used as a pump source for the intracavity generated second harmonic and determines the spectroscopic precision of the produced blue light. The frequency locking experiment is analysed using the unbalanced scheme of the polarisation stabilisation technique. The designed optical buildup cavity became a part of the unbalanced frequency discriminator in such a scheme. The results demonstrate high gain of frequency noise suppression of the stabilised laser. The unbalanced arrangement of the H}ansch-Couillaud technique has been possible due to a very low amplitude noise of semiconductor lasers.

In this thesis, we report the observations of optical squeezing from second harmonic generation (SHG), optical parametric oscillation (OPO) and optical parametric amplification (OPA). Demonstrations and proposals of applications involving the squeezed light and electro-optic control loops are presented. ¶ In our SHG setup, we report the observation of 2.1 dB of intensity squeezing on the second harmonic (SH) output. Investigations into the system show that the squeezing performance of a SHG system is critically affected by the pump noise and a modular theory of noise propagation is developed to describe and quantify this effect. Our experimental data has also shown that in a low-loss SHG system, intra-cavity nondegenerate OPO modes can simultaneously occur. This competition of nonlinear processes leads to the optical clamping of the SH output power and in general can degrade the SH squeezing. We model this competition and show that it imposes a limit to the observable SH squeezing. Proposals for minimizing the effect of competition are presented. ¶ In our OPO setup, we report the observation of 7.1 dB of vacuum squeezing and more than 4 dB of intensity squeezing when the OPO is operating as a parametric amplifier. We present the design criteria and discuss the limits to the observable squeezing from the OPO.We attribute the large amount of squeezing obtained in our experiment to the high escape efficiency of the OPO. The effect of phase jitter on the squeezing of the vacuum state is modeled. ¶ The quantum noise performance of an electro-optic feedforward control loop is investigated. With classical coherent inputs, we demonstrate that vacuum fluctuations introduced at the beam splitter of the control loop can be completely cancelled by an optimum amount of positive feedforward. The cancellation of vacuum fluctuations leads to the possibility of noiseless signal amplification with the feedforward loop. Comparison shows that the feedforward amplifier is superior or at least comparable in performance with other noiseless amplification schemes. When combined with an injection-locked non-planar ring Nd:YAG laser, we demonstrate that signal and power amplifications can both be noiseless and independently variable. ¶ Using squeezed inputs to the feedforward control loop, we demonstrate that information carrying squeezed states can be made robust to large downstream transmission losses via a noiseless signal amplification. We show that the combination of a squeezed vacuum meter input and a feedforward loop is a quantum nondemolition (QND) device, with the feedforward loop providing an additional improvement on the transfer of signal. In general, the use of a squeezed vacuum meter input and an electro-optic feedforward loop can provide pre- and post- enhancements to many existing QND schemes. ¶ Finally, we proposed that the quantum teleportation of a continuous-wave optical state can be achieved using a pair of phase and amplitude electro-optic feedforward loops with two orthogonal quadrature squeezed inputs. The signal transfer and quantum correlation of the teleported optical state are analysed. We show that a two dimensional diagram, similar to the QND figures of merits, can be used to quantify the performance of a teleporter.