A dissertation submitted to the Global Labour University in conformity with the requirements of a MA in Labour Policy and Globalisation School of Social Sciences Faculty of Humanities University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg March 2016 / Understanding the subjective views of low skilled marginalised workers who occupy bottom ends of labour markets and are implicated in everyday precarious living and working conditions is crucial for advancing scholarship on precarity. This qualitative study grounded in a phenomenological theoretical framework highlights the disconnects between the academic understandings of precarity and an understanding of precariousness from Zimbabwean migrant security guards’ own perspective in South Africa’s Private Security Industry (PSI), Gauteng Province. Relying on data collected through a combination of an ethnographic experience in 2014 and in-depth face to face interviews I conducted from June 2015, this study examines the perceptions that migrant security guards have on precarity, the strategies and tactics they employ to navigate everyday precarious working and living conditions and most importantly, the rationale behind these workers continued stay and work under precarious situations. As workers with precarious backgrounds, the findings of this study reveals that migrant security guards treat wage employment instrumentally, a source of their livelihood that has led to improvements in their standards of living as interpreted by them. The strategies and tactics employed by these workers either individually or collectively are therefore rationally and tactically crafted so as not directly challenge and disrupt the existing structures (state, capital and law) but instead to survive within these structures so as not to jeopardise their main source of livelihood-wage employment. For migrant security guards, wage employment remains a vital tool for meeting their varied socio-economic and political objectives. This study therefore led to the conclusion that there is generally a mismatch between academic conceptualisation of precarity and the way marginalised and low skilled labour migrants interpret and understand circumstances. / GR2017

Cette thèse porte sur la place dans la ville des acteurs quotidiens de la sécurité à Nairobi, au Kenya. Ces acteurs, appelés génériquement « les veilleurs » afin de signifier du même coup leur tâche professionnelle (surveiller la ville) et leur condition incertaine (« être en veille », vivre dans une forme de suspens), sont entrevus au prisme de deux groupes particuliers : les gardiens de sécurité privée aux portes des résidences de la ville planifiée et les jeunes recrues des youthgroups dans les quartiers de bidonvilles. Privilégiant une approche par les individus et le quotidien, je m’inscris dans le champ renouvelé de la sécurité, sensible depuis une dizaine d’années aux effets « micro » produits par les dispositifs sécuritaires, notamment sur les subjectivités particulières, les affects, les corps et les pratiques routinières. La capitale kenyane présente un double caractère me permettant de mettre en lumière l’acuité de la condition des veilleurs dans la ville : une fragmentation urbaine iconique, voire « cliché » en termes d’imaginaire et une atmosphère générale d’inquiétude, relative au contexte traumatique des violences politiques récentes et à l’émergence de la menace terroriste. Cette recherche s’appuie sur une méthode qualitative de type ethnographique, combinée à l’expérimentation d’une méthodologie de création poétique, afin de lever l’inhibition de la parole. Elle appréhende la condition des veilleurs à trois niveaux de lecture : la condition politique d’individus maintenus dans un registre d’ambiguïté vis-à-vis des communautés qu’ils protègent, la vie quotidienne dérivant de cette condition, enfin le sens que ces individus s’efforcent d’en extraire. Ces trois niveaux me permettent de développer une approche spatiale des concepts d’abandon, désignant cette puissance sécuritaire ambiguë qui assigne les veilleurs dans un « ni dedans, ni dehors » (sur la ligne de démarcation entre le Familier et l’Étranger) ; de vies en attente, pour souligner le poids de l’incertitude au sein de leur quotidien ; enfin de place complexe afin de signifier la puissance des imaginaires spatiaux et temporels par lesquels les veilleurs s’approprient leur condition. / This PhD thesis aims at analysing the place within the city of everyday security actors in Nairobi, Kenya. I call them “veilleurs” (sentinels of the city), playing on the double meaning of the word in French : referring both to their professional activity (watching over the city) and their feeling of living a passive life (watching all day long can be considered as a non-action). The study focuses on two groups in particular : private security guards at the gate of residential compounds in the planned city, and youthgroups members in slum areas. Adopting an individual and everyday-centred approach, this work fits in with the recent renewal of security studies. For the last ten years, those have been advocating a closer attention to “micro” effects produced by security assemblages, especially on subjectivities, affects, bodies, and everyday routines. The city of Nairobi displays a double feature that sheds new light on the sensitive question of the veilleurs. First, its urban fragmentation appears as particularly iconic in terms of imaginaries. Second, Nairobi can be qualified as an “anxious city” in light of the recent political violence (2007-2008) and the emerging terrorist threat. This study is based on both an ethnographic approach and a creative methodology using poetry as a way to free the speech of my interlocutors. It seeks to analyse the place of the veilleurs through three layered readings: their ambiguous political condition (being “on the line” between familiarity and otherness: neither inside nor outside the community they are supposed to watch over), the uncertain everyday life resulting from this condition, and the diverse imaginaries they produce to make sense of it. These three layers allow me to develop both a spatial and social reading of the key concepts of abandonment, lives on hold, and complex place to better understand this particular category of urban workers.

The aim of this study was to determine the current operational skills requirements for Close Protection Operatives (CPOs) in South Africa. Operational skills refer to those skills that are vital in order for a CPO to effectively protect a designated person (this person is referred to as the `Principal'). In order to determine any shortcomings in the Close Protection industry, twenty in-depth interviews were conducted with current operational CPOs. A detailed literature review was also done in order to create a solid platform for the research and to assist in the verification of the information. During the research, it was found that the task of providing Close Protection could be divided into various sub-categories. This was necessary in order to gain a rounded perspective of a CPO's roles and duties. CPO's tasks in their entirety had to be unpacked into their smaller sub-components. In fact there were many ways to subdivide the skills requirements and functions of CPOs. It was, however, found that the actual subdivisions were less important than the gaining of a comprehensive understanding of how all the aspects are interrelated and should function synergistically. The need for regulation of the South African Close Protection industry was identified as a major concern among all interview respondents. In order to determine the relevant factors involved in regulation, the way countries such as the United Kingdom (UK), Australia and Israel regulate their industries, was assessed. It was noted that the industry in South Africa is `partially regulated'. This means that there is some sort of registration process for CPOs but no comprehensive monitoring and enforcement of accepted minimum competency standards. Currently in South Africa private sector CPOs are rated on the same scale as security guards and must be registered as a Grade level C with the Private Security Industry Regulatory Authority (PSIRA). This is not an effective manner to regulate CPOs. CPOs should be viewed as professionals and specialists since their skills far exceed those of a security guard (Grade C). According to South Africa's Skills Development Plan all industries will fall under Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs). Close Protection is grouped under the Police, Private Security, Legal, Correctional Services and Justice Sector Education and Training Authority (POSLEC SETA). There is currently a South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) Unit Standard for Close Protection (Protection of Designated Persons, Units Standard number: 11510). However, the research revealed that while the unit standard correctly outlines the operational skills requirements of CPOs there are no assessment guidelines or clearly defined minimum skills requirements. Before the unit standard can be effectively implemented, agreed industry minimum standards for the relevant skills divisions in Close Protection need to be identified and implemented. But currently there is some confusion regarding which body is responsible for, firstly developing acceptable unit standards; secondly, getting the industry as a whole to agree and accept such standards; thirdly, to see to it that training on those standards is provided; and finally the monitoring of these standards in practice. In this study various training related factors were identified and examined in order to assess whether the way CPOs are trained in South Africa is effective or not. Aspects such as the intensity, focus, duration and content were examined. In general it was found that it is important for the following to be implemented: 1. Effective screening and pre-training evaluation of potential trainees. 2. Training should be job orientated and focus on training CPOs for the functions that they will actually have to perform. 3. Training methodologies should focus on an outcomes based approach and utilise the fundamentals of adult based education. 4. Training should simulate reality including the related stress factors that are placed on operational CPOs such as lack of sleep and high levels of activity interspersed with boring waiting periods. 5. Ongoing training and re-training are vital components to a CPO maintaining operational competency. 6. Close Protection instructors need to have both an operational background and training in instructional methodologies before being considered competent. It is important that in the long term international recognition of South African Close Protection qualifications is achieved. This is essential since many South African CPOs operate internationally. Globalisation and improvements in technology have made it easier for international networking to take place. This has meant that clients are using CPOs in different countries and international comparisons are inevitable. If South African CPOs are to be considered `world class' then internationally recognised minimum standards need to be implemented for the South African Close Protection industry. The research indicated and highlighted various trends that may affect the Close Protection industry. The trends identified that seemed most relevant to the South African Close Protection industry were as follows: * Increased public awareness of international terrorism has resulted form acts such as the 9/11 attacks. This has made people more aware of the need for and benefits of security. Use of well trained CPOs is one of the ways that potential clients are able to minimise their exposure to any potential terrorist attack. * A CPO's ability to communicate and liaise with all relevant parties involved in the Close Protection environment is vital to the success of any operation. Therefore it is vital that these aspects receive the relevant focus during training. * The CPO needs to be well trained in use of unarmed combat and alternative weaponry. He/she can no longer rely on the use of a firearm as the primary force option. * A CPO needs to be able to adapt to many different situations. It is important that a CPO is trained to blend in and use the correct protocol in any given situation. The focus of operations should be on operating in a low profile manner to avoid unnecessary attention. * A CPO needs to be well trained in all aspects of planning and avoidance. The skills needed to proactively identify and avoid threats are vital to modern day operations. The CPO also needs to be quick thinking and adaptable in order to function effectively. * A CPO needs to have a working knowledge of all security related aspects that could enhance the safety of his/her Principal (i.e. multi-skilled). In addition to the above mentioned factors, other recommendations emanating from this study focused on minimum competency standards for the identified subdivisions of close protection. Examples of possible assessment guidelines and criteria were identified covering the following broad classifications: * Prior educational qualifications * Physical abilities * CPO skills * Prior experience in guarding * Firearm skills * Unarmed combat * Protective skills * First aid skills * Security knowledge * Advanced driver training * Protocol and etiquette * Management and business skills * Related skills / Criminology and Security Science / (M.Tech (Security Management))

Quality is critical to private security personnel employed as receptionists in many organisations, as it plays a vital role in improving organisational productivity. The main objective of the research was to investigate the quality of reception services provided by security personnel to organisations in the Johannesburg area as benchmarked against the appropriate service quality evaluation methodologies when modelling the impact of service quality on satisfaction and loyalty. A questionnaire was used and semi-structured interviews were conducted in a focus group with key informants (business owners, managers and ordinary people) who could provide valuable information for use in the study. The focus group consisted of eight respondents. The sample consisted of 200 participants scattered in seven regions on sites that are managed by Johannesburg City Parks and Zoo (JCPZ). The selection of the 200 participants was random and included JCPZ employees. Primary research shows that the majority of the respondents ranked indicators of service quality below acceptable level; however, customers‘ tastes and preferences constantly change and evolve, as do the number of security companies. Thus such companies should improve conditions in the area of service quality if they want to stay competitive. To remain competitive, the security companies as well as the clients need to analyse customers' expectations and perceptions of the service quality of front office staff, who in this case are often security/guarding personnel. For customer organisations, the empirical findings can be used to develop a framework of service quality indicators, which can be used for monitoring and benchmarking service quality. For organisations, the findings can be used for resource-allocation decisions pertaining to improved service quality, customer satisfaction and ultimately intentions. The study concludes that the quality perceptions of services rendered by security personnel as receptionists are important for customer satisfaction and that quality dimensions are important for clientele management - arguably one of the most important aspects of service quality management. / Business Management / M. Tech.

This study aimed to analyse the development and growth of the Kenyan private security sector, and to establish its role and impact on safety and security. The study included determining the impact of the private security sector in Nairobi and the mobile patrol functions on safety and security in Kenya. Furthermore, to determine the impact of the Kenyan private security sector on loss prevention functions; reviewed how special events security and private investigation functions affect the safety and security of Kenyans; and also considered how in-house security functions of the private security sector further influence safety and security in Kenya. The researcher reviewed previous studies with a view to establish academic gaps which the present study sought to bridge. This study adopted a census survey design and employed quantitative research methods as the main approach to guide the study. The research targeted all of the private security firms in Kenya. There are 23 listed security firms under the Kenya Security Industry Association (KSIA) and 44 under the Protective Security Industry Association (PSIA) - a total of 67 security firms in Kenya. The research instrument used for data collection was a questionnaire to elicit the required information from the respondents. The respondents were either the Managing Director or Head of Security at these firms, since they have a broad knowledge about the business activities being conducted by the company. Most of them have been with the company for a significant number of years. Emanating from the research findings it is recommended that the security firms should better train the private security guards in order to enhance overall security being provided to clients. Security guards must be able to respond to different changes in their environment, which include action such as traffic movement; ensure the safety of people among and inside different localities; observing and handling the admittance and exit of individuals and cars and evaluating and monitoring individuals and coming up with a policy and legal framework for regulating and observing Private Security Company (PSC) activity. The study concludes that the private security sector in Kenya impacts on and influences overall safety and security. The study, therefore, finds that there has been growth and development of the private security sector in Kenya and it continues to do so currently. Finally, advances the view that a significant relationship does exist between the functions of the private security sector and the development of the private security sector in Kenya which have had an extensive influence on levels of safety and security in that country. / Criminology and Security Science / M. Tech. (Security Management)

Criminology and Security Science / D. Litt. et Phil. (Criminology)

This study aimed to analyse the development and growth of the Kenyan private security sector, and to establish its role and impact on safety and security. The study included determining the impact of the private security sector in Nairobi and the mobile patrol functions on safety and security in Kenya. Furthermore, to determine the impact of the Kenyan private security sector on loss prevention functions; reviewed how special events security and private investigation functions affect the safety and security of Kenyans; and also considered how in-house security functions of the private security sector further influence safety and security in Kenya. The researcher reviewed previous studies with a view to establish academic gaps which the present study sought to bridge. This study adopted a census survey design and employed quantitative research methods as the main approach to guide the study. The research targeted all of the private security firms in Kenya. There are 23 listed security firms under the Kenya Security Industry Association (KSIA) and 44 under the Protective Security Industry Association (PSIA) - a total of 67 security firms in Kenya. The research instrument used for data collection was a questionnaire to elicit the required information from the respondents. The respondents were either the Managing Director or Head of Security at these firms, since they have a broad knowledge about the business activities being conducted by the company. Most of them have been with the company for a significant number of years. Emanating from the research findings it is recommended that the security firms should better train the private security guards in order to enhance overall security being provided to clients. Security guards must be able to respond to different changes in their environment, which include action such as traffic movement; ensure the safety of people among and inside different localities; observing and handling the admittance and exit of individuals and cars and evaluating and monitoring individuals and coming up with a policy and legal framework for regulating and observing Private Security Company (PSC) activity. The study concludes that the private security sector in Kenya impacts on and influences overall safety and security. The study, therefore, finds that there has been growth and development of the private security sector in Kenya and it continues to do so currently. Finally, advances the view that a significant relationship does exist between the functions of the private security sector and the development of the private security sector in Kenya which have had an extensive influence on levels of safety and security in that country. / Criminology and Security Science / M. Tech. (Security Management)