During the Late Pliocene to Middle Pleistocene Ages, sediments of the study area were deposited in the intra-slope salt withdrawal basin where sand-prone sediments deposited as turbidite lobes and channel fills are the main reservoirs of the Northern Gulf of Mexico. The main purpose of this study was to identify and characterize these sand-prone sediments. Sequence stratigraphic analysis of well logs, biostratigraphic data, and 3-D seismic data provided a chronostratigraphic framework of the study area, within which seismic facies analysis was carried out. Each sequence was subdivided into separate seismic bodies characterized by specific amplitude, coherence of reflectors, and shape of reflectors. The descriptions of each seismic facies combined with well logs were compared with turbidite facies models to infer their geological information. Five turbidite elements were identified: depositional channel fills and overbank deposits, erosional channel fills, turbidite lobes, mud turbidite fills and sheets and hemipelagic and pelagic drapes. Depositional channel fills are usually deposited in lower parts of interpreted sequences, surrounded by shale-prone overbank deposits. The lateral variation of these turbidite elements was revealed by horizon slices, in which depositional channels are generally trending NE-SW or NNE-SSW with elongated sinuous forms. Well logs indicate that depositional channel fills usually consist of bell or cylinder type sand-prone sediments. Turbidite lobe was found only in the 1.1-0.8 Ma sequence, in which it laps out onto the underlying sequence boundary and shows high-amplitude and a high-coherence of mound shape. This facies is interpreted as sand-prone, but wells available penetrated only the marginal parts of this facies and showed poor reservoir qualities. Horizon slices could partly reveal its lapout boundary due to the limitation of vertical seismic resolution. Mud turbidite fills and sheets are the most dominant turbidite facies, which usually occurred in the upper parts of sequences and overlain by hemipelagic and pelagic drapes. Hemipelagic and pelagic drapes were deposited very widely, wrapping down the previous topography with consistent thickness throughout the basin. Erosional channel was observed only in the 0.8-0.7 Ma sequence where it cut into the underlying sequence and was filled by shale-prone sediments. Depositional channel fills and turbidite lobes are the main reservoir facies in the study area. Seismic facies analysis using vertical seismic sections and horizon slices combined with lithology data made it possible to identify and systematically describe these sand prone turbidite elements in intra-slope salt withdrawal basin.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Integrated approaches in the study of petroleum exploration are increasingly becoming significant in recent times and have yielded much better result as oil exploration is a combination of different related topics. The production capacity in hydrocarbon exploration has been the major concern for oil and gas industries. In the present work an integrated approach was made with seismic, well logs and biostratigraphy for predicting the depositional environment and to understand the heterogeneity within the reservoirs belonging to Valanginian (Early Cretaceous) age of Gamtoos Basin, Offshore South Africa. Objectively, the integrated work was mainly based on seismic stratigraphy (seismic sequence and seismic facie analysis) for interpretation of the depositional environments with combination of microfossil biostratigraphic inputs. The biostratigraphic study provides evidences of paleo depth from benthic foraminifera and information about bottom condition within the sedimentary basin, changing of depositional depth during gradual basinal fill during the Valanginian time. The petrophysical characterization of the reservoir succession was based on formation evaluation studies using well logs to investigate the hydrocarbon potential of the reservoir across Valanginian depositional sequence. Further, the static modeling from 2D-seismic data interpreted to a geological map to 3D-numerical modeling by stochastic model to quantify the evaluation of uncertainty for accurate characterisation of the reservoir sandstones and to provide better understanding of the spatial distribution of the discrete and continuous Petrophysical properties within the study area.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Velocity modelling forms an integral part of the seismic interpretation process initially completed in two-way time. In order for a representative depth conversion, it is obligatory to construct a velocity model that serves the bridge between velocity and respective two-way time. This study deals with the investigation of subsurface heterogeneities and its impact on the variation of velocities. Interpretation of time domain reflection data results in one or more seismic horizons, however these horizons should represent the variation in subsurface geology as a result of acoustically different layers displaying varying reflection amplitudes. The purpose of this study was fulfilled by examining the variation of these velocities in relation to the geology and its significance towards building a velocity model. It is evident that complexities, such as an existing heterogeneous subsurface is present in the study area. Using velocities only considered at formation well tops, as a result, does not completely honour the variation in these velocities. The velocity profile as calculated from the sonic log was characterized into zones representing unique velocity trends. The analyses to understand the impact of subsurface heterogeneities on the velocities was completed by the application of seismic facies analysis which entailed the study of the seismic reflector patterns and amplitudes; a study of the lithologies present and the generation of mineral plots using available wireline logs, all of which in close relation to the variation in velocities. The characterized zones, as a result have shown that shaly sediments are typically associated with higher velocities (~2800 – 4600m/s) compared to sandstones of lower densities. Mineral plots however, have also indicated that where quartz minerals were present (specifically zone L), sandstones as a result have shown higher velocities (~4800m/s) as compared to the shales (~3600m/s). These higher velocities are also associated with more organised seismic reflectors with brighter amplitudes and strong contrasts in acoustic impedance as shown by the seismic. Uniform velocities were observed in zones such as zone Ia, typically associated with a low acoustic impedance contrast and minimal variation in its lithological make-up. The integrated investigation of subsurface heterogeneities has shown that velocities vary to a substantial degree as a result of existing subsurface heterogeneities. The variation of these velocities are hence significant enough that it should be considered when constructing a velocity model which aims to respect the geology of the study area. The result of understanding the relation between the geology and resultant velocities may prove to advance the results of the velocity model in a manner that it is more complete and representative of the subsurface.

O Caribe Colombiano é o foco da exploração na Colômbia, e a Bacia da Guajira na sua parte offshore tem sido relativamente pouco explorada. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo fazer um estudo sísmico de alta resolução aplicável á áreas sem exploração em blocos novos ou para ter diferentes perspectivas em blocos já explorados, neste caso para o intervalo de tempo compreendido entre o limite do Mioceno médio-inferior e o Oligoceno superior, em uma área da Guajira Alta. A partir da integração de duas seções sísmicas 2D, associadas a seis poços com litologias definidas por amostras de calha, foi realizada: (1) uma análise sismoestratigráfica de alta resolução incluindo a interpretação das terminações dos refletores, definição das unidades sismoestratigráficas e superfícies chave, (2) identificação das sismofácies, (3) a elaboração de uma carta cronoestratigráfica. Como resultado, foram individualizadas cinco unidades sísmicas, seis sismofácies e a carta cronoestratigráfica Todas as unidades sísmicas identificadas correspondem com depósitos de gravidade tipo fluxo de detritos e turbiditos, e depósitos hemipelágicos. As sismofácies caracterizadas como turbiditos (refletores paralelos, subparalelos, hummocky), são geralmente calcáreas, as sismofácies de fluxo de detritos (refletores caóticos), têm mistura de litologias tipo folhelhos, siltitos, lamitos, arenitos e carbonatos, e as sismofácies definidas como depósitos hemipelágicos (refletores paralelos, subparalelos), correspondem em sua maioria com depósitos finos. Na carta cronoestratigráfica indica uma depositacão contínua em esse intervalo de tempo. / Colombia Caribbean province is an important hydrocarbon exploration target in Colombia, a Guajira Offshore Basin as part of this province and is a frontier basin today. Main objective of this study is to develop a high resolution seismic stratigraphic study to be applied to unexplored areas on new blocks and/or to have another interpretation in low explored areas, in this case, on the specific time interval upper Oligocene-middle-lower Miocene, selecting a study area in Upper Guajira offshore. Data integration of two seismic sections and lithologic logs from six wells obtained from cuttings made possible to interpret: 1) High resolution seismic stratigraphic analysis including seismic stratigraphic units and key surfaces definition, seismic reflectors pinch outs, 2) seismic facies definition and 3) cronostratigraphic chart. From this analysis were stablished five seismic units, six seismic facies and a chronostratigraphic events chart. All interpreted seismic units correspond to gravity flow deposits debris and turbiditic type and hemipelagic deposits. Turbidite type seismic facies (parallel, subparallel and hummocky reflectors), are usually calcareous in composition, as well as detrital fluxes (chaotical reflectors), are generally a mixture of sandstones, limestones, siltstones, mudstones and shales, and hemipelagic seismic facies (parallel to subparallel reflectors) correspond to thin bedded deposits usually silty and muddy. Chronostratigraphic chart events indicates continuous deposition in this time interval.

Interpretation of 900 km of a closely spaced grid of high-resolution seismic profiles over the northwestern margin of South Caspian Basin (SCB) allows recognition and study of six late Pleistocene - Holocene depositional sequences. Sequence stratigraphy analysis of sedimentary strata from 117,000 years B.P. to present led to the identification of a highstand systems tract, two transgressive systems tracts and six lowstand systems tracts. Each systems tract is characterized by specific seismic facies. Diverse depositional processes on the northwestern margin of the SCB are suggested by the thirteen seismic facies patterns recognized in the study area. Two distinct progradational complexes were interpreted within Sequence III and Sequences IV and V in the northeastern and northwestern parts of the study area, respectively. Stratigraphic interpretation of the sequences provided important information on parameters that control depositional architectures, such as lake level fluctuations, tectonic dynamics, and sediment supply. High sedimentation rates combined with a series of high-frequency and high-amplitude lake-level fluctuations, abrupt changes at the shelf edge, abnormally high formation pressure, and high tectonic activity during Quaternary time resulted in the development of a variety of complex geologic drilling hazards. I distinguished three types of hazards as a result of this study: mud volcanoes, sediment instability, and shallow gas. The 2D high-resolution seismic dataset from the northwestern margin of the SCB allowed more detailed seismic sequence stratigraphic analysis in the study area than has previously been attempted. In particular, it has a clear application in deciphering sediment supply and relative lake level changes as well as tectonic relationship of the northwestern shelf margin of the SCB. Results of this work led us towards better understanding of recent depositional history, improved our knowledge of the nature of the basin tectonics, climate history and styles of and controls on sedimentation processes within a sequence stratigraphic framework during the late Pleistocene-Holocene time.

O Caribe Colombiano é o foco da exploração na Colômbia, e a Bacia da Guajira na sua parte offshore tem sido relativamente pouco explorada. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo fazer um estudo sísmico de alta resolução aplicável á áreas sem exploração em blocos novos ou para ter diferentes perspectivas em blocos já explorados, neste caso para o intervalo de tempo compreendido entre o limite do Mioceno médio-inferior e o Oligoceno superior, em uma área da Guajira Alta. A partir da integração de duas seções sísmicas 2D, associadas a seis poços com litologias definidas por amostras de calha, foi realizada: (1) uma análise sismoestratigráfica de alta resolução incluindo a interpretação das terminações dos refletores, definição das unidades sismoestratigráficas e superfícies chave, (2) identificação das sismofácies, (3) a elaboração de uma carta cronoestratigráfica. Como resultado, foram individualizadas cinco unidades sísmicas, seis sismofácies e a carta cronoestratigráfica Todas as unidades sísmicas identificadas correspondem com depósitos de gravidade tipo fluxo de detritos e turbiditos, e depósitos hemipelágicos. As sismofácies caracterizadas como turbiditos (refletores paralelos, subparalelos, hummocky), são geralmente calcáreas, as sismofácies de fluxo de detritos (refletores caóticos), têm mistura de litologias tipo folhelhos, siltitos, lamitos, arenitos e carbonatos, e as sismofácies definidas como depósitos hemipelágicos (refletores paralelos, subparalelos), correspondem em sua maioria com depósitos finos. Na carta cronoestratigráfica indica uma depositacão contínua em esse intervalo de tempo. / Colombia Caribbean province is an important hydrocarbon exploration target in Colombia, a Guajira Offshore Basin as part of this province and is a frontier basin today. Main objective of this study is to develop a high resolution seismic stratigraphic study to be applied to unexplored areas on new blocks and/or to have another interpretation in low explored areas, in this case, on the specific time interval upper Oligocene-middle-lower Miocene, selecting a study area in Upper Guajira offshore. Data integration of two seismic sections and lithologic logs from six wells obtained from cuttings made possible to interpret: 1) High resolution seismic stratigraphic analysis including seismic stratigraphic units and key surfaces definition, seismic reflectors pinch outs, 2) seismic facies definition and 3) cronostratigraphic chart. From this analysis were stablished five seismic units, six seismic facies and a chronostratigraphic events chart. All interpreted seismic units correspond to gravity flow deposits debris and turbiditic type and hemipelagic deposits. Turbidite type seismic facies (parallel, subparallel and hummocky reflectors), are usually calcareous in composition, as well as detrital fluxes (chaotical reflectors), are generally a mixture of sandstones, limestones, siltstones, mudstones and shales, and hemipelagic seismic facies (parallel to subparallel reflectors) correspond to thin bedded deposits usually silty and muddy. Chronostratigraphic chart events indicates continuous deposition in this time interval.

O Caribe Colombiano é o foco da exploração na Colômbia, e a Bacia da Guajira na sua parte offshore tem sido relativamente pouco explorada. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo fazer um estudo sísmico de alta resolução aplicável á áreas sem exploração em blocos novos ou para ter diferentes perspectivas em blocos já explorados, neste caso para o intervalo de tempo compreendido entre o limite do Mioceno médio-inferior e o Oligoceno superior, em uma área da Guajira Alta. A partir da integração de duas seções sísmicas 2D, associadas a seis poços com litologias definidas por amostras de calha, foi realizada: (1) uma análise sismoestratigráfica de alta resolução incluindo a interpretação das terminações dos refletores, definição das unidades sismoestratigráficas e superfícies chave, (2) identificação das sismofácies, (3) a elaboração de uma carta cronoestratigráfica. Como resultado, foram individualizadas cinco unidades sísmicas, seis sismofácies e a carta cronoestratigráfica Todas as unidades sísmicas identificadas correspondem com depósitos de gravidade tipo fluxo de detritos e turbiditos, e depósitos hemipelágicos. As sismofácies caracterizadas como turbiditos (refletores paralelos, subparalelos, hummocky), são geralmente calcáreas, as sismofácies de fluxo de detritos (refletores caóticos), têm mistura de litologias tipo folhelhos, siltitos, lamitos, arenitos e carbonatos, e as sismofácies definidas como depósitos hemipelágicos (refletores paralelos, subparalelos), correspondem em sua maioria com depósitos finos. Na carta cronoestratigráfica indica uma depositacão contínua em esse intervalo de tempo. / Colombia Caribbean province is an important hydrocarbon exploration target in Colombia, a Guajira Offshore Basin as part of this province and is a frontier basin today. Main objective of this study is to develop a high resolution seismic stratigraphic study to be applied to unexplored areas on new blocks and/or to have another interpretation in low explored areas, in this case, on the specific time interval upper Oligocene-middle-lower Miocene, selecting a study area in Upper Guajira offshore. Data integration of two seismic sections and lithologic logs from six wells obtained from cuttings made possible to interpret: 1) High resolution seismic stratigraphic analysis including seismic stratigraphic units and key surfaces definition, seismic reflectors pinch outs, 2) seismic facies definition and 3) cronostratigraphic chart. From this analysis were stablished five seismic units, six seismic facies and a chronostratigraphic events chart. All interpreted seismic units correspond to gravity flow deposits debris and turbiditic type and hemipelagic deposits. Turbidite type seismic facies (parallel, subparallel and hummocky reflectors), are usually calcareous in composition, as well as detrital fluxes (chaotical reflectors), are generally a mixture of sandstones, limestones, siltstones, mudstones and shales, and hemipelagic seismic facies (parallel to subparallel reflectors) correspond to thin bedded deposits usually silty and muddy. Chronostratigraphic chart events indicates continuous deposition in this time interval.

[pt] Neste trabalho apresentamos metodologias baseadas em algoritmos de agrupamento de dados utilizadas para processamento de dados sísmicos 3D. Nesse processamento, os voxels de entrada do volume são substituídos por vetores de características que representam a vizinhança local do voxel dentro do seu traço sísmico. Esses vetores são processados por algoritmos de agrupamento de dados. O conjunto de grupos resultantes é então utilizado para gerar uma nova representação do volume sísmico de entrada. Essa estratégia permite modelar a estrutura global do sinal sísmico ao longo de sua vizinhança lateral, reduzindo significativamente o impacto de ruído e demais anomalias presentes no dado original. Os dados pós-processados são então utilizados com duas finalidades principais: o mapeamento automático de horizontes ao longo do volume, e a produção de volumes de visualização destinados a enfatizar possíveis descontinuidades presentes no dado sísmico de entrada, particularmente falhas geológicas. Com relação ao mapeamento de horizontes, o fato de as amostras de entrada dos processos de agrupamento não conterem informação de sua localização 3D no volume permite uma classificação não enviesada dos voxels nos grupos. Consequentemente a metodologia apresenta desempenho robusto mesmo em casos complicados, e o método se mostrou capaz de mapear grande parte das interfaces presentes nos dados testados. Já os atributos de visualização são construídos através de uma função auto-adaptável que usa a informação da vizinhança dos grupos sendo capaz de enfatizar as regiões do dado de entrada onde existam falhas ou outras descontinuidades. Nós aplicamos essas metodologias a dados reais. Os resultados obtidos evidenciam a capacidade dos métodos de mapear mesmo interfaces severamente interrompidas por falhas sísmicas, domos de sal e outras descontinuidades, além de produzirmos atributos de visualização que se mostraram bastante úteis no processo de identificação de descontinuidades presentes nos dados. / [en] We present clustering-based methodologies used to process 3D seismic data. It firstly replaces the volume voxels by corresponding feature samples representing the local behavior in the seismic trace. After this step samples are used as entries to clustering procedures, and the resulting cluster maps are used to create a new representation of the original volume data. This strategy finds the global structure of the seismic signal. It strongly reduces the impact of noise and small disagreements found in the voxels of the entry volume. These clustered versions of the input seismic data can then be used in two different applications: to map 3D horizons automatically and to produce visual attribute volumes where seismic faults and any discontinuities present in the data are highlighted. Concerning the horizon mapping, as the method does not use any lateral similarity measure to organize horizon voxels into clusters, the methodology is very robust when mapping difficult cases. It is capable of mapping a great portion of the seismic interfaces present in the data. In the case of the visualization attribute, it is constructed by applying an auto-adaptable function that uses the voxel neighboring information through a specific measurement that globally highlights the fault regions and other discontinuities present in the original volume. We apply the methodologies to real seismic data, mapping even seismic horizons severely interrupted by various discontinuities and presenting visualization attributes where discontinuities are adequately highlighted.

[pt] Independente da metodologia adotada para realizar análise de fácies sísmicas, a segmentação temporal e espacial da região do reservatório deve ser realizada cuidadosamente. A confiança no resultado da interpretação depende da complexidade do sistema geológico, da qualidade dos dados sísmicos, e da experiência do intérprete. Portanto, qualquer erro de interpretação pode levar a resultados incoerentes. Especialmente, a análise de fácies sísmicas utilizando formas de onda do sinal na região do reservatório é bastante sensível a ruídos de interpretação. Sabe-se que variações no conteúdo de freqüência dos traços sísmicos podem estar associadas às informações de refletividade da sub-superfície. Conseqüentemente, análises conjuntas em tempo - freqüência podem levar a formas não convencionais para a caracterização de reservatórios. Especificamente, esta tese propõe o uso das propriedades em tempo - freqüência, obtidas através do algoritmo de matching pursuit, e das singularidades detectadas e caracterizadas via transformada wavelet, como ferramenta para detecção de eventos sísmicos e para análise não supervisionada de fácies sísmicas quando associadas ao agrupamento dos mapas auto organizáveis de Kohonen. / [en] Independent of the adopted methodology to perform the seismic facies analysis, the geological oriented spatial and temporal segmentation of the reservoir region should be carefully done. Depending on the complexity of the reservoir system, seismic data quality, and the experience of the interpreter, the level of confidence in an interpretation can vary from very high to very low. Therefore, any interpretation error could lead to wrong or noisy results. Specially, when using seismic trace shapes, defined by the values of the seismic samples along each segmented trace, as the seismic input attributes to the chosen seismic facies algorithm. These facies analysis artifacts are introduced because seismic waveform in the reservoir delimited area changes quickly as a function of the interpretation, then waveforms with almost the same shape could be assigned to different classes due only to their different phases. It is known that variations of the frequency content of a seismic trace with time carry information about the properties of the subsurface reflectivity sequence. Consequently, seismic trace time- frequency analyses could provide an unconventional way to reservoir characterization. Specifically, in this work we propose to use the time-frequency properties of the atoms obtained after the matching pursuit signal representation and the singularities identified by wavelet transform, jointly with Self Organizing Maps as an unsupervised seismic facies analyses system.

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