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The Andean orogen is the most outstanding example of mountain building caused by the subduction of oceanic below continental lithosphere. The Andes formed by the subduction of the Nazca and Antarctic oceanic plates under the South American continent over at least ~200 million years. Tectonic and climatic conditions vary markedly along this north-south–oriented plate boundary, which thus represents an ideal natural laboratory to study tectonic and climatic segmentation processes and their possible feedbacks. Most of the seismic energy on Earth is released by earthquakes in subduction zones, like the giant 1960, Mw 9.5 event in south-central Chile. However, the segmentation mechanisms of surface deformation during and between these giant events have remained poorly understood. The Andean margin is a key area to study seismotectonic processes because of its along-strike variability under similar plate kinematic boundary conditions. Active deformation has been widely studied in the central part of the Andes, but the south-central sector of the orogen has gathered less research efforts. This study focuses on tectonics at the Neogene and late Quaternary time scales in the Main Cordillera and coastal forearc of the south-central Andes. For both domains I document the existence of previously unrecognized active faults and present estimates of deformation rates and fault kinematics. Furthermore these data are correlated to address fundamental mountain building processes like strain partitioning and large-scale segmentation. In the Main Cordillera domain and at the Neogene timescale, I integrate structural and stratigraphic field observations with published isotopic ages to propose four main phases of coupled styles of tectonics and distribution of volcanism and magmatism. These phases can be related to the geometry and kinematics of plate convergence. At the late Pleistocene timescale, I integrate field observations with lake seismic and bathymetric profiles from the Lago Laja region, located near the Andean drainage divide. These data reveal Holocene extensional faults, which define the Lago Laja fault system. This fault system has no significant strike-slip component, contrasting with the Liquiñe-Ofqui dextral intra-arc system to the south, where Holocene strike-slip markers are ubiquitous. This contrast in structural style along the arc is coincident with a marked change in along-strike fault geometries in the forearc, across the Arauco Peninsula. Thereon I propose that a net gradient in the degree of partitioning of oblique subduction occurs across the Arauco transition zone. To the north, the margin parallel component of oblique convergence is distributed in a wide zone of diffuse deformation, while to the south it is partitioned along an intra-arc, margin-parallel strike-slip fault zone. In the coastal forearc domain and at the Neogene timescale, I integrate structural and stratigraphic data from field observations, industry reflection-seismic profiles and boreholes to emphasize the influence of climate-driven filling of the trench on the mechanics and kinematics of the margin. I show that forearc basins in the 34-45°S segment record Eocene to early Pliocene extension and subsidence followed by ongoing uplift and contraction since the late Pliocene. I interpret the first stage as caused by tectonic erosion due to high plate convergence rates and reduced trench fill. The subsequent stage, in turn, is related to accretion caused by low convergence rates and the rapid increase in trench fill after the onset of Patagonian glaciations and climate-driven exhumation at ~6-5 Ma. On the late Quaternary timescale, I integrate off-shore seismic profiles with the distribution of deformed marine terraces from Isla Santa María, dated by the radiocarbon method, to show that inverted reverse faulting controls the coastal geomorphology and segmentation of surface deformation. There, a cluster of microearthquakes illuminates one of these reverse faults, which presumingly reaches the plate interface. Furthermore, I use accounts of coseismic uplift during the 1835 M>8 earthquake made by Charles Darwin, to propose that this active reverse fault has been mechanically coupled to the megathrust. This has important implications on the assessment of seismic hazards in this, and other similar regions. These results underscore the need to study plate-boundary deformation processes at various temporal and spatial scales and to integrate geomorphologic, structural, stratigraphic, and geophysical data sets in order to understand the present distribution and causes of tectonic segmentation. / Die Anden sind eine einzigartige Gebirgskette entstanden aus der Subduktion von ozeanischer unter kontinentale Lithosphäre. Seit mehr als 200 Millionen Jahren bewirkt die Subduktion der ozeanischen Nazca- und Antarktisplatte unter den Südamerikanischen Kontinent eine stete Entwicklung des aktiven Plattenrandsystems. Entlang der Plattengrenze ändern sich die tektonischen und klimatischen Bedingungen in markanter Weise und machen dieses Orogen zu einem idealen natürlichen Laboratorium für das Studium tektonischer und klimatischer Prozesse und deren rückgekoppelte Wechselwirkungen. Der grösste Teil der seismischen Energie auf der Erde wird durch Erdbeben an Subduktionszonen freigesetzt, wie das spektakulärste Beispiel des Valdivia-Bebebens von 1960 im süd-zentral chilenischen Küstenbereich – mit Mw 9,5 das stärkste je gemessene seismische Ereignis, unterstreicht. Die Verteilungsmechanismen der Oberflächendeformation während und zwischen solchen gewaltigen Vorgängen blieben jedoch weitgehend unverstanden. Wegen seiner im Streichen veränderlichen Eigenschaften bei ähnlich bleibenden plattenkinematischen Randbedingungen nimmt die Subduktionszone des Anden-Orogens eine Schlüsselstellung für das Studium seismotektonischer Segmentationsprozesse ein. Aktive Deformationsprozesse sind im zentralen Teil der Anden in grösserem Umfang untersucht worden, während der mittlere bis südliche Abschnitt des Orogens bisher weniger Bearbeitung fand. Die vorliegende Arbeit ist auf die seismotektonischen Prozesse des Neogen und Spätquartärs in der Hauptkordillere und dem Küstenbereich der südlichen Zentralanden konzentriert. In beiden Strukturzonen kann die Existenz bisher nicht bekannter aktiver Störungen belegt werden und es werden Abschätzungen der Deformationsraten sowie der Kinematik präsentiert. Diese Daten bilden desweiteren die Basis, um Aussagen zu grundlegenden gebirgsbildenden Prozessen, der Verformungsverteilung und der gross-skaligen Segmentation zu treffen. Für das Neogen im untersuchten Abschnitt der Hauptkordillere sind strukturelle und stratigraphische Geländebeobachtungen durch publizierte Isotopendaten ergänzt worden, so dass vier Hauptphasen mit jeweils spezifischem tektonischen Stil und Verteilungsmustern von Vulkanismus und Magmatismus unterschieden werden können. Auf der spätpleistozänen Zeitskala sind die Geländebeobachtungen mit seismischen und bathymetrischen Seeprofilen aus der Lago-Laja-Region kombiniert worden, die sich nahe der Wasserscheide der Anden befinden. Diese Daten belegen extensionale holozäne Störungen, die das Lago-Laja-Störungssystem bestimmen. Im Gegensatz zum dextralen Liquiñe-Ofqui-System im Süden, wo holozäne, dextrale Blattverschiebungen allgegenwärtig sind, besitzt dieses Störungssystem keine signifikante Blattverschiebungskomponente. Dieser Kontrast entlang der Kordilliere fällt mit einer markanten Änderung der Störungsmuster im Forearc zusammen. Im Norden verteilt sich die randparallele Komponente der schrägen Subduktion auf eine breite Zone diffuser Verformung, während sie im Süden entlang einer Intra-arc- und randparallelen Blattverschiebungszone partitioniert auftritt. Im Küstenbereich werden Struktur- und stratigraphische Daten aus Geländebeobachtungen mit reflektionsseismischen Profilen und Bohrlochmessdaten verbunden, um Information zum Einfluss einer klimatisch-gesteuerten Auffüllung des Grabens auf die Mechanismen und die Kinematik des Randes während des Neogen zu erhalten. Es zeigt sich, dass Forearc-Becken im Segment bei 34–45° S eozäne bis frühpliozäne Dehnung und Subsidenz aufzeigen, denen spätpliozäne und noch aktive Hebung und Verkürzung folgten. Das erste Stadium kann mit tektonischer Erosion infolge hoher Plattenkonvergenzraten und geringerer Grabenfüllung erklärt werden. Das nachfolgende Stadium hingegen ist mit Akkretionsprozessen zu erklären, die durch geringe Konvergenzraten und gesteigerte Grabenauffüllung nach dem Einsetzen der Patagonischen Vereisung und klimagesteuerter Exhumierung vor etwa 6–5 Ma verursacht wurden. Auf der spätpleistozänen Zeitebene werden seismische Profile mit der Oberflächenentwicklung aus deformierten, 14C-datierten, marinen Terrassen der Isla Santa María integriert und gezeigt dass die Küstenmorphologie und die Segmentation der Oberflächendeformation von Aufschiebungen kontrolliert werden. In diesem Gebiet zeichnet ein Cluster von Mikrobeben eine dieser Störungen, die vermutlich die Plattengrenzfläche erreicht, deutlich nach. Desweiteren zeigen Berechnungen der koseismischen Hebung während des Erdbebens von 1835 mit M>8 nach Aufzeichnungen von Charles Darwin, dass diese aktive Verwerfung mechanisch an die Subduktionszone gekoppelt war und durch das Ereignis von 1835 aktiviert wurde. Diese Erkenntnisse haben grosse Bedeutung für die Abschätzung der seismischen Gefährdung in der Region. Die gewonnenen Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit unterstreichen den Bedarf an integrierten Untersuchungen der Deformationsprozesse an aktiven Plattenrändern in verschiedenen Zeit- und Raumskalen, ebenso wie die Notwendigkeit, diese mit geomorphologischen, strukturellen und geophysikalischen Datensätzen zu verknüpfen, um einen Beitrag zum Verständnis der gegenwärtigen Verteilung und Ursachen der tektonischen Segmentation sowie der Gefährdungsabschätzung zu leisten.

Der Elburs im Norden Irans ist ein durch die Konvergenz der Arabischen und Eurasischen Platte verursachtes doppelt konvergentes Gebirge. Das komplexe System von Blattverschiebungen und Überschiebungen sowie die Aufnahme der Deformation im Elburs ist noch nicht sehr gut verstanden. Eine neu zu entwicklende Methode zur Inversion von seismischen Momententensoren, die unterschiedliche Beobachtungen verschiedener Stationstypen kombiniert invertiert, soll die bisher hauptsächlich strukturelle/geomorphologische Datengrundlage um Momententensoren auch kleinerer Magnituden (M < 4.5) erweitern. Dies ist die notwendige Grundlage für detaillierte seismotektonische Studien, die wiederum die Basis für seismische Gefährdungsanalysen bilden.

Au cours du dernier siècle, plusieurs séismes majeurs ont affecté l'Himalaya. Cependant, la taille maximale de ces événements et la probabilité d'occurrence de méga-séismes avec des magnitudes proches de 9 sont toujours matière à débat. L'étude de la segmentation de l'arc Himalayen est donc primordiale afin de comprendre les mécanismes qui contrôlent ces séismes ainsi que leur extension spatiale. La compréhension du cycle sismique en Himalaya est aujourd'hui essentiellement basée sur des études menées au Népal central, ce qui limite notre connaissance de son fonctionnement tri-dimensionnel. Ce travail de thèse permet d'apporter de nouvelles contraintes sur les variations latérales de la déformation crustale dans la zone comprise entre l'ouest Népal (~80°E) et l'est Bhoutan (~92°E). La première partie de cette thèse est consacrée à l'étude des variations latérales de la structure lithosphérique. Quatre campagnes gravimétriques ont été réalisées entre 2010 et 2012. Elles ont permis d'étendre le réseau gravimétrique Népalais jusqu'à l'ouest Népal et d'établir le premier réseau gravimétrique Bhoutanais. Ce nouveau jeu de données, combiné avec les données sismologiques disponibles, permet de contraindre des modèles thermo-mécaniques de la flexure de la plaque Indienne sous l'Himalaya. Les résultats suggèrent qu'il n'existe pas de variations latérales majeures du comportement mécanique de la lithosphère Indienne entre le centre et l'est Népal contrairement au Bhoutan où une rigidité flexurale plus faible est nécessaire pour expliquer les données.La deuxième partie de cette thèse est consacrée à l'étude des variations latérales des déformations récentes dans le prisme Himalayen. Les études paléosismologiques menées depuis 15 ans en Himalaya ont permis d'étendre le catalogue des événements majeurs sur le dernier millénaire. En intégrant à la fois les contraintes disponibles sur ces séismes majeurs et le chargement séculaire, nous étudions les variations spatiales et temporelles de l'état de contrainte du chevauchemlent Himalayen principal le long de l'arc. Nos calculs montrent que même dans la cas où un méga-séisme se serait produit en ~1100 en Himalaya, le chargement séculaire a quasiment compensé la chute de contrainte associée. Les modèles montrent aussi que le séisme du Shillong ne joue pas un rôle majeur sur les contraintes accumulées sur le chevauchement Himalayen depuis 1897 au niveau du Bhoutan. Enfin, nous présentons les premières contraintes sur la tectonique active au Bhoutan. L'étude morphotectonique réalisée au centre du Sud-Bhoutan a permis de montrer que la majeure partie de la déformation Holocène est accommodée au niveau du front Himalayen, comme au Népal. Nous montrons aussi des évidences de ruptures de surface avec des décalages verticaux de plusieurs mètres associés à deux séismes majeurs sur le dernier millénaire. Ces évidences remettent en cause l'interprétation d'un méga-séisme en ~1100. / Several major earthquakes have struck the 2500 km long Himalayan range during the past century. However, both the maximum size of such earthquakes and the probability of occurrence of a magnitude 9 megaquake are still a mater of debate. In this framework it is of key importance to investigate the lateral segmentation of the Himalayan arc in order to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms that control such events as well as their extents. Besides the remarkably uniform tectonic set-up and the fact that most studies on the Himalayas have focused on Central Nepal, several indications of along strike changes can be gathered.This thesis brings new constraints on lateral variations of crustal structure and of deformation between western Nepal (~80°E) and eastern Bhutan (~92°E).The first part of this thesis focuses on the lateral variations of crustal structure. In the past three years we have carried out four land gravity campaigns. We have established 366 new gravity measurement points to fill the data gaps in central and western Nepal as well as in Bhutan. This new dataset, together with available seismological data, is used to constrain thermo-mechanical models of the bending of the India plate underneath the Himalayas. While the inferred crustal geometry does not exhibit major along-strike variations over central and eastern Nepal, the shorter wavelength flexure of the lithosphere in Bhutan is associated with a weaker upper mantle rheology.The second part focuses on the lateral variations of recent deformation in the Himalayas. Fifteen years of paleoseismological investigations have extended the catalogue of major Himalayan events over the last millennium. Combining these information with secular loading, we assess the spatial and temporal stress changes on the Main Himalayan Thrust along the orogen over the last nine centuries. Our calculations indicate that inter-seismic loading has now nearly overcome the Coulomb stress decrease caused by the great ~1100 medieval earthquake. Our results also point out that the 1897 Shillong plateau earthquake does not have a major influence on the stress accumulated on the Main Himalayan Thrust since then. In order to better characterize active tectonics in the Bhutan Himalayas where no studies were done so far, we carried out a morphotectonic analysis in the south-central part of the kingdom. We show that the same amount of Holocene deformation is accommodated on the frontal thrust in Bhutan as on the neighbouring portions of the Himalayan arc. We also find evidences for two major (M>8) earthquakes on this thrust in the Bhutan Himalayas during the last millennium. Our results therefore show that Bhutan cannot be considered as a seismic gap. They also challenge the interpretation of one single ~1100 medieval mega-event that would have ruptured the Main Frontal Thrust from central Nepal to eastern Bhutan.

The complex system of strike-slip and thrust faults in the Alborz Mountains, Northern Iran, are not well understood yet. Mainly structural and geomorphic data are available so far. As a more extensive base for seismotectonic studies and seismic hazard analysis we plan to do a comprehensive seismic moment tensor study also from smaller magnitudes (M < 4.5) by developing a new algorithm. Here, we present first preliminary results.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第24963号 / 理博第4988号 / 新制||理||1712(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科地球惑星科学専攻 / (主査)教授 澁谷 拓郎, 教授 久家 慶子, 教授 大見 士朗 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

Tsunami hazards were greatly underestimated along the coasts of countries bordering the northeastern Indian Ocean until the occurrence of the 26 December 2004, Mw 9.2 earthquake and its ensuing tsunami. Sourced off the coast of northern Sumatra, on the plate boundary between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates, the rupture of the 2004 earthquake propagated ~1300 km northward. The magnitude of this earthquake and the reach of its tsunami exceeded all known precedents, based on instrumental and historic records. The coseismic deformational and post-tsunami depositional features facilitated opportunities to conduct tsunami geology studies along the coasts of countries bordering the Indian Ocean. Several questions are being posed, the answers of which have implications for tsunami hazard assessment. How did this plate boundary behave prior to and after the great earthquake? Was the 2004 earthquake the first of its kind on the Sumatra-Andaman plate boundary? If it had a predecessor, when did it occur and was it a true predecessor in terms of its rupture dimensions and tsunamigenic potential? What types of depositional evidence are preserved and how can we use them to develop the history of past tsunamigenic earthquakes? Researchers are exploring the affected regions and using the imprints left by the 2004 event, to address these questions. There are two components to this study: one, a seismotectonic analysis of the region from the perspective of plate driving forces and their relative roles in the interseismic and post-seismic phases. This study uses global data catalogs like the NEIC PDE (National Earthquake Information Centre Preliminary Determination of Epicenters) and the Global Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT) solutions for earthquake source parameters to understand the along-strike variations in seismicity patterns before and after the 2004 earthquake. The 2004 experience was unprecedented in South Asia. Unaffected by tsunami hazards in the past, tsunami geology is a nascent field for most South Asian researchers. Very little background field data is available on the deformational features of great earthquakes along this plate boundary and the depositional characteristics of extreme coastal surges, such as tsunamis and storms. Where do we begin our search for evidence of past tsunamigenic earthquakes? How best can we use the 2004 tsunami and its deposits as a proxy? What problems are encountered in the interpretations? This thesis addresses these questions in part and presents observations from the Andaman Islands (the ~400 km, northern segment of the Sumatra-Andaman subduction zone) and the southeast coast of India, towards developing a reliable database of tsunami geology for 2004-type events. The premise is that regions affected by the 2004 earthquake are more likely to conserve signatures from older events. Based on the stratigraphic context of the proxy and quality of age estimates, this work presents evidence for past earthquake related deformation and tsunami deposition. In this work we use deformational and depositional features from the Andaman Islands, falling within the 2004 rupture zone and from one location on the Tamil Nadu coast of India (Kaveripattinam). From a perceptive understanding of the features related to tectonic deformation of the Sumatra-Andaman subduction zone, we have selected the Andaman segment that demonstrates explicit evidence for deformation and tsunami deposition through geomorphological and stratigraphic features, which are key to our exploration. A gist of each chapter is given below. The introduction (chapter 1) presents the background, motivation and scope of this work and the organization of this thesis, also summarizing the contents of each chapter. Chapter 2 provides a review of literature on subduction zone earthquakes and updates on tsunami geology, to place this study in the global context. The next two chapters discuss the seismotectonics of the Sumatra-Andaman plate boundary, the important earthquakes and their source processes. In chapter 3 we discuss the Andaman segment (from 10–15° N), characterized by relatively lower level seismicity, but distinctive, as it falls within the northern limit of the 2004 rupture. The deformational and depositional features here are better exposed due to availability of land straddling the hinge line separating the areas of 2004 uplift and subsidence. Here, the pre-2004 earthquakes used to occur along a gently dipping subducting slab, up to a depth of about 40 km. Post-2004, the earthquakes moved up-dip, extending also to the outer-rise and outer-ridge regions, expressing post-earthquake relaxation [Andrade and Rajendran, 2011]. The southern Nicobar segment (5–10° N) differs from the Andaman segment in its style of deformation and seismic productivity. The decreasing obliquity of convergence, the likely influence of a subducting ocean ridge on the subducting plate and the character of the subducting oceanic plate make this segment distinctly different. In chapter 4 we present an analysis of its seismotectonic environment based on the well-constrained focal mechanisms of historic and recent earthquakes. We report that left-lateral strike-slip faulting on near N-S oriented faults control the deformation and the style of faulting is consistent to ~80 km within the subducting slab [Rajendran, K. et al., 2011]. The 11 April 2012 sequence of earthquakes on the subducting oceanic plate, between the Sumatra Trench and the Ninety East Ridge are the more recent among the oceanic intraplate earthquakes that demonstrate the reactivation of N-S oriented fossil fractures. The limited availability of land and the 2004 coseismic deformation dominated by subsidence, followed by prolonged waterlogging makes exploration difficult in the Nicobar segment. Thus, we focus on the Andaman Islands for deformational and depositional evidence, using observations that can be corroborated through multiple proxies and depositional environments that are not prone to other coastal surges, such as cyclones and storms. The criteria for selection of sites, evaluation of deposits and determination of limiting ages are discussed in chapters 5 through 9. In chapter 5 we discuss different types of coastal environments and their response to high-energy sea surges. We also give a brief review of the comparative analyses of storm and tsunami deposits, a highly debated issue and then discuss important characteristics of these two deposits, using examples from the 2004 tsunami and the 2011 Thane cyclone that affected parts of the Tamil Nadu coast. An important component of tsunami geology is the ability to identify and select datable material from tsunami deposits and chose an appropriate method for dating (chapter 6). The types of material used vary from peat layers, peat-rich soil, gastropod shells, wood, charcoal, organic remains such as bones, coral fragments, pottery sherds and buried soil. Techniques such as AMS Carbon-14 and Thermoluminescence are commonly used with appropriate calibrations and corrections. In addition to the dates generated in this study (based on wood and shell dates) we use some previous dates from the entire stretch of the rupture within the Indian Territory and assign a relative grading to these ages, based on the quality criterion evolved in this study. We believe that this is the first attempt to segregate age data obtained from coastal deposits, and assign them a specific quality grading based on their environment of deposition and the type of material dated. Chapter 7 presents results of our investigations in the Andaman Islands, which cover ~30% of the rupture area. A coseismically subsided mangrove from Rangachanga (Port Blair, east coast of South Andaman) led us to a former subsidence during AD 770–1040, which we believe is the most convincing evidence for a previous tectonic event. Data based on inland deposits of coral and organic debris yielded a younger age in the range of AD 1480–1660. Both these dates fall in the age brackets reported from other regions of this plate boundary (mainly Sumatra) as well as distant shores of Sri Lanka, Thailand and mainland India. To understand the nature of distant deposits, we present observations from Kaveripattinam, an ancient port city on the east coast of India, where a high-energy sea surge deposit, found 1 km inland is attributed to a paleotsunami. The inland location of this archeological site at an elevation of 2 m and characteristics of the deposit that help discriminate it from typical storm deposition provide clinching evidence in favor of a 1000-year old regional tsunami (chapter 8). In chapter 9 we discuss the results of our study. We evaluate the nature of deformation/deposition and the calibrated age data in the context of their environments. Ages based on the organic material associated with coral debris (at Hut Bay and Interview Island) and the remains of mangrove roots, 1 m below the present ground level (at Port Blair) are considered as reliable estimates, due to their sheltered inland location and the in situ root horizon used for dating. Age data from Kaveripattinam is also considered reliable, based on its inland location beyond the reach of storm surges, sediment characteristics typical of tsunami deposition and ages based on multiple methods and samples. The age data based on the sites presented in this thesis are more conclusive about the 800 to 1100 AD and 1250 to 1450 AD tsunamis, and the former is represented from regions closer to the 2004 source as well as distant shores reached by its tsunami. Chapter 10 presents our conclusions and the scope for future studies. We present this as the first study of its kind in the northeastern Bay of Bengal, wherein the coseismic vertical coastal deformation features along an interplate subduction boundary and a variety of tsunami deposits are used to categorize depositional environments and ages of paleoearthquakes and tsunamis. To our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind where the effects of a recent tsunami have been used to evaluate paleodeposits based on their respective environments of occurrence. Our results have implications for tsunami geology studies in coastal regions prone to tsunami hazard.

Erdogmus-Yenigediz graben is one of the major structural elements of Aksehir-Simav Fault System (ASFS), which is a major extensional structure in the southwestern Anatolian extensional neotectonic province (SWAEP). It is about 6-10-km-wide, 15-km-long and approximately ENE-trending and is actively growing structure as indicated by the 1970.03.28 (Mw= 7.2) Gediz earthquake. The graben is characterized by two distinct units, separated by an angular unconformity: (i) Miocene-middle Pliocene Arica formation and (ii) Plio Quaternary Erdogmus formation. The former unit commences with a basal conglomerate above the basement rocks and is composed mainly of coal-bearing continental and lacustrine sediments with lava flows and pyroclastics, particularly common in the middle parts of the sequence. The volcanics are dated at 18.4 &plusmn / 0.1 Ma (Ar-Ar mica ages). They record evidence for two deformation phases as suggested by twosets of overprinting slickenlines, intense folding, thrust and strike-slip faulting. The Erdogmus formation commences with terrace conglomerates and is composed mainly of travertines, older and younger alluvial deposits, fan-apron sediments and the recent axial graben floor sediments. Kinematic analysis of the graben-bounding normal faults, growth faults within the graben-infill and those deforming the sediments are consistent with three distinct phases of deformation: (i) Miocene middle Pliocene extensional phase, (ii) interveining NE SW contractional phase and (iii) Plio-Quaternary extensional phase. The data also suggests a distributed stress field and a multi-directional recent extension in predominantly NNE&ndash / SSW, E&ndash / W and NE&ndash / SW directions. This is also consistent with available focal mechanism solutions for the region. The graben therefore has an episodic evolutionary history with two extensional phases and an intervening short-term contraction, as described in many different parts of the SWAEP. The latter phase of extension is considered as the part of Neotectonic regime, which therefore commenced by the Late Pliocene.

Η περιοχής της διατριβής βρίσκεται στη ΝΑ Στερεά Ελλάδα μεταξύ του συστήματος τάφρων-ζωνών, του Κορινθιακού και του Νότιου Ευβοϊκού Κόλπου και η κατανόηση της τεκτονικής εξέλιξής της κρίνεται ιδιαίτερα σημαντική για την κατανόηση της πιθανής αλληλεπίδρασής τους ή ακόμη και της σύνδεσης τους. Για να σκιαγραφηθεί αυτή η σχέση έγινε τεκτονική ανάλυση στη Λεκάνη Θηβών όπου αναγνωρίσθηκαν τέσσερις (4) κύριες ρηξιγενείς ζώνες με μήκη που κυμαίνονται από ~18 έως ~27 km. Κάθε μια από τις ρηξιγενείς ζώνες αποτελείται από επιμέρους κύρια ρήγματα. Αναλύθηκαν συνολικά 10 κύρια ρήγματα με μήκος που κυμαίνεται από ~7 έως ~15 km. Τα ρήγματα και οι αντίστοιχες ρηξιγενείς ζώνες, που αυτά συνθέτουν, αποτελούν, κατά την εξέλιξη της Λεκάνης Θηβών, περιθώρια επιμέρους λεκανών. Η διατριβή συνεισφέρει στην κατανόηση της τεκτονικής εξέλιξής της περιοχής μελέτης, η οποία κρίνεται ιδιαίτερα σημαντική για την κατανόηση της πιθανής αλληλεπίδρασής των γειτονικών ρηξιγενών ζωνών, ή ακόμη και της σύνδεσης τους. Στόχοι της διατριβής αποτέλεσαν: (1) η αναγνώριση και λεπτομερής χαρτογράφηση των κύριων ρηξιγενών ζωνών της Λεκάνης Θηβών και η σύνδεσή τους με τις τεκτονικές και σεισμολογικές παρατηρήσεις στην περιοχή της ΝΑ Στερεάς Ελλάδας, (2) η κατανόηση του τρόπου σύνδεσης και εξέλιξης των ρηγμάτων, (3) η εκτίμηση του «βαθμού ενεργότητας» των ρηξιγενών δομών, και (4) η κατανόηση του ρόλου της ενεργού τεκτονικής στην εξέλιξη του αναγλύφου της περιοχής μελέτης. Οι σεισμοί, ως φυσικό φαινόμενο, έχουν την δυνατότητα να προκαλούν εκτεταμένες υλικές καταστροφές και πολλές φορές και την απώλεια ανθρώπινων ζωών, επιδρούν κατά κανόνα αρνητικά στην πρόοδο της οργανωμένης κοινωνίας. Συνεπώς, ο καθορισμός των ενεργών τεκτονικών διεργασιών είναι σημαντικός για την κατασκευή μεγάλων τεχνικών έργων αλλά και για τη σχεδίαση της αντισεισμικής πολιτικής μιας περιοχής ή μιας χώρας. Το βασικό ‘’εργαλείο’’ της παρούσας μελέτης αποτέλεσε ένα ευρύ φάσμα ‘’τεχνικών’’ της Ενεργού Τεκτονικής και της Τεκτονικής Γεωμορφολογίας. Η ποσοτική μορφοτεκτονική ανάλυση των ρηξιγενών ζωνών με τη χρήση μορφομετρικών δεικτών, επιτρέπει τόσο την ακριβή χαρτογράφηση και ανάλυση των ρηγμάτων όσο και την εκτίμηση του ‘’βαθμού ενεργότητάς’’ τους. Τα όρια των ρηγμάτων και οι ζώνες μεταβίβασης που αναπτύσσονται μεταξύ των ρηγμάτων στις ρηξιγενής ζώνες αναλύθηκαν με την κατασκευή διαγραμμάτων κατανομής της μετατόπισης. Η διερεύνηση της σχέσης μεταξύ της μετατόπισης του ρήγματος με το επιφανειακό του μήκος, βοηθάει στην κατανόηση του τρόπου με τον οποίο αναπτύσσονται τα ρήγματα και των κλασματικών ιδιοτήτων της μετατόπισης σε σχέση με το μήκος. Επιπρόσθετα, η διερεύνηση της σχέσης μεταξύ αναγλύφου και λεκανών απορροής στη βάση των ρηξιγενών ζωνών, αποτελεί ένα ακόμα ‘’βήμα’’ για την κατανόηση της εξέλιξης του αναγλύφου των ρηξιγενών ορεογραφικών μετώπων. Τα νεοτεκτονικά στοιχεία που συλλέχθηκαν συμπληρώθηκαν με την εκσκαφή παλαιοσεισμολογικών τομών και την εφαρμογή μεθόδων και αρχών της Παλαιοσεισμολογίας και οδήγησαν στη διερεύνηση της σεισμικής ιστορίας του Ρήγματος Καπαρέλλιου, με γεωλογικές μεθόδους, ώστε να εκφράζεται αυτή με όρους ανάλογους της σεισμολογίας. Η χρήση των Γεωγραφικών Συστημάτων Πληροφοριών (G.I.S) αποτέλεσε ένα ‘’δυναμικό εργαλείο’’ συλλογής, διαχείρισης και απεικόνισης χωρικών δεδομένων που προέκυψαν από την εφαρμογή των παραπάνω μεθόδων στην περιοχή μελέτης. Η ποιοτική και ποσοτική ανάλυση του υδρογραφικού δικτύου της περιοχής μελέτης, έδειξε ότι η εξέλιξη των λεκανών απορροής επηρεάζεται σημαντικά από τη δράση των επιμέρους ρηξιγενών ζωνών, και σε μικρότερο βαθμό και από τις τοπικές γεωλογικές και υδρογεωλογικές συνθήκες της περιοχής. Ο υπολογισμός της ασυμμετρίας των κύριων λεκανών απορροής της περιοχής μελέτης υπολογίσθηκε με το Συντελεστή Ασυμμετρίας (Αf) και το Συντελεστή Εγκάρσιας Τοπογραφικής Συμμετρίας (Τ). Κατά μήκος των ρηξιγενών ζωνών υπολογίσθηκαν οι μορφοτεκτονικοί δείκτες: δείκτης ευθυγράμμισης ορεογραφικού μετώπου (Smf), δείκτης λόγου πλάτους κοιλάδας προς ύψος κοιλάδας (Vf), δείκτης σχήματος λεκάνης απορροής (Bs) και δείκτης μήκους-κλίσης ρέματος (SL). Οι τιμές των μορφοτεκτονικών δεικτών καταδεικνύουν ότι όλες οι ρηξιγενείς ζώνες είναι ενεργές και υπόκεινται σε υψηλό ρυθμό ανύψωσης σύμφωνα με τα διεθνώς παραδεκτά δεδομένα. Η ανάλυση με μεθόδους της Τεκτονικής Γεωμορφολογίας, που πραγματοποιήθηκε στις τέσσερις ρηξιγενής ζώνες της περιοχής μελέτης, οδηγεί στο συμπέρασμα ότι όλες οι ζώνες μπορούν να χαρακτηρισθούν σαν υψηλής ενεργότητας. Από την ανάλυση των αποτελεσμάτων των παλαιοσεισμολογικών τομών διαπιστώθηκε ότι το Βόρειο Ρήγμα Καπαρελλίου παρουσιάζει συνεχή τεκτονική δραστηριότητα. Σε μια περιοχή όπως ο ευρύτερος Αιγιακός χώρος, η μελέτη του αναγλύφου με τη χρήση μορφοτεκτονικών παραμέτρων μπορεί να αποτελέσει οδηγό για την κατανόηση των επιφανειακών επιπτώσεων των σεισμών επί του ανάγλυφου. / The study area is located in the easternmost sector of the Gulf of Corinth, the Beotia area in SE Central Greece, which is an area with active normal faults located between two major rift structures of Central Greece, the Gulf of Corinth and the South Gulf of Evia. The Gulf of Corinth is an active rift with high rates of uplift and high seismicity, on the contrary the South Gulf of Evia is an area with low rates of uplift, compared with the Gulf of Corinth, moderate seismicity but with strong seismic events. The research is focused on four fault zones, which are described from west to east: the Neochori-Leontari, the Livadostras-Kaparelli, the Erithres-Dafnes and the Kallithea-Asopia fault zones with lengths from ~18 km to ~27 km. Each one of the fault zones consist from a number of discrete main faults with lengths ranging from ~7 to ~15 km. The purpose of this study is to analyze the drainage pattern and landscape evolution in order to evaluate the tectonic activity and the fault growth within the actively deformed easternmost sector of the Gulf of Corinth. In order to achieve this aim, a variety of morphotectonic parameters is used additionally with detailed mapping of faults to refine geometry and evolution of fault systems in the study area. In addition, we used G.I.S. techniques to estimate the morphotectonic parameters. In addition, three palaeoseismological trenches were excavated across the Kaparelli fault scarp, in order to understand the seismic history of the Kaparelli normal fault that ruptured during the March 1981 Gulf of Corinth earthquakes. All faults or fault zones analyzed in this study control a basin and range topography accommodating the current extension in the South Sterea Hellas region. These faults follow two trends: ENE to NE and WNW to E-W. The former fault system prevails in western Greece, with Rio Graben as a typical structure controlled by these faults. In eastern Peloponnese and south Sterea Hellas this fault system appears to be weaker. The Livadostras, Neochori and Dafnes faults belong to this fault trend. The WNW to E-W trending faults control a series of typical grabens, like the Gulf of Corinth, Tithorea, Sperchios-Atalanti as well as the Thiva graben. The Kaparelli, Leontari, Tanagra, Kallithea, Asopia, Kirikion and Erithres faults belong to this fault trend. All mentioned faults are organized in fault zones. It is also commonly observed that faults belonging to the two fault trends show a physical or mechanical linkage and thus in the same fault zone both fault trends are included. The results of this study shows that vertical motions and tilting associated with normal faulting influence the drainage geometry and its development. Values of stream-gradient indices (SL) are relatively high close to the fault traces of the studied fault zones suggesting high activity. Mountain-front sinuosity (Smf) mean values along the fault zones ranges from 1.08 to 1.26. Valley floor width to valley height ratios (Vf) mean values along the studied fault zones range between 0.5 and 1.6. Drainage basin shape (BS) mean values along the fault zones range from 1.87 to 3.54. Drainage density (Dd) mean values along the studied fault zones range from 1.56 to 5.65. All these morphotectonic parameters and geomorphological data suggest that the analyzed normal faults are highly active. Although fault zones controlling the Thiva Basin show lateral growth both westwards and eastwards, in several cases the tendency for eastward lateral growth is more predominant. The analyzed trenches expose evidence of at least three events, for the past 10,000 years, with the 1981 event included. Displacements per event on different fault segments within the trenches vary between 0.7 and 1 m. Average vertical displacements associated with interpreted paleoearthquakes at the trench site are in the order of 2.7 m. Average slip rates derived from the trenches is in the order of c. 0,3 mm/yr.