Universiẗat, Diss., 2003--Stuttgart.

Fehlerhafte sekretorische Proteine werden über einen speziellen Abbauweg, die ER-assoziierte Proteindegradation (ERAD), mit Lysin48-verknüpften Ubiquitinketten polyubiquitiniert und dem proteolytischen Abbau am 26S Proteasom zugeführt. In der Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae bilden die beiden ER-membranständigen RING-Ubiquitinligasen Hrd1 und Doa10 zentrale Komponenten im Ubiquitinierungsprozess. Das lösliche zytosolische Ubiquitin-konjugierende Enzym Ubc7, welches mit beiden Ligasen bei der Polyubiquitinierung von Substratproteinen zusammenwirkt, wird über den membranverankerten Co-Faktor Cue1 an die ER-Membran rekrutiert. Die in dieser Arbeit dargestellten Ergebnisse belegen zwei weitere Funktionen für Cue1 im Ubiquitinierungsprozess: Die Bindung von Ubc7 an einen carboxyterminalen Bereich in Cue1 führt zur Stimulation der Ubiquitinierungsaktivität von Ubc7 mit den RING-Ligasen. Darüber hinaus bewirkt die Ubiquitin-bindende CUE-Domäne in Cue1 eine Steigerung der Länge der Ubiquitinketten und deren Syntheserate, was zum effektiven Abbau einiger ER-membrangebundener Substratproteine beiträgt. Die durch Ubc7 synthetisierten Lysin48-verknüpften Ubiquitinketten werden in Abhängigkeit eines schleifenförmigen sauren Bereichs in Ubc7 gebildet. Entfernen dieses Bereichs resultiert im Abbruch der Ubiquitinierung nach Konjugation eines Monoubiquitins auf dem Substrat. An der Hrd1-Ligase werden durch Ubc7 polyubiquitinierte Proteine umgehend zum Proteasom transferiert. Für den Doa10-abhängigen Substratabbau ist die Funktion eines weiteren Ubiquitin-konjugierenden Enzyms, Ubc6, notwendig. Die hier gezeigten Daten weisen auf eine Ubc6-abhängige Verknüpfung von Ubiquitinmolekülen in einer Lysin11-abhängigen Weise hin. Eine Inhibition der Synthese Lysin11-verknüpfter Ubiquitinketten hatte jedoch keinen Effekt auf den Abbau von Substratproteinen. Stattdessen wurde der Abbau von Ubc6 selbst durch Unterbindung der Bildung Lysin27-verknüpfter Ubiquitinketten verhindert. / Aberrant secretory proteins are removed from the cell in a process termed „endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation" (ERAD), as it screens the endoplasmic reticulum for unwanted polypeptides and triggers their elimination via the 26S proteasome. To this end, client proteins of the ERAD pathway are polyubiquitinated with lysine48-linked ubiquitin chains at the ER membrane. Two ER membrane-integrated RING ubiquitin ligases, Hrd1 and Doa10, constitute central components of the ubiquitination machinery in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. To polyubiquitinate substrate proteins, both ligases interact with the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme Ubc7. Since Ubc7 itself is a soluble cytosolic protein, it is recruited to the ER-membrane by is anchoring factor Cue1. Results in this study reveal two additional functions of Cue1 in the ubiquitination reaction: First, binding of Ubc7 to the Cue1-carboxyterminus stimulates the ubiquitin chain formation by Ubc7 and the ligases. Second, the CUE domain within Cue1 increases the chain length and accelerates the synthesis of the polyubiquitin chain, which results in efficient degradation of certain substrate proteins. Formation of lysine48-linked ubiquitin chains by Ubc7 depends on an acidic loop within Ubc7. Deletion of this structure leads to inhibition of ubiquitin chain elongation after the initial substrate monoubiquitination. Client proteins, ubiquitinated by Ubc7 and Hrd1, are immediately transferred to the proteasome. For Doa10-dependent substrate degradation, the activity of another ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, Ubc6, is required. Data shown here indicate a function of Ubc6 in the formation of lysine11-linked polyubiquitin, since mutation of this lysine residue resulted in the prevention of ubiquitin chain synthesis. However, expression of this ubiquitin mutant had no effect on substrate degradation. Moreover, the proteolysis of Ubc6 itself is inhibited by prevention of lysin27-linked polyubiquitin chain formation.

Fehlgefaltete Proteine des sekretorischen Weges werden aus dem Endoplasmatischen Retikulum (ER) in das Zytosol transportiert und dort durch das Ubiquitin-Proteasom-System abgebaut. Dieser Qualitätskontrollmechanismus wird als Endoplasmatisches Retikulum-assoziierte Proteindegradation bezeichnet (ERAD). In der Bäckerhefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae stellt die HRD-Ubiquitinligase eine zentrale Komponente dieses Abbausystems dar. Eine Untereinheit dieses Multienzymkomplexes ist das ER-ständige Membranprotein Der1, das über den Faktor Usa1 an die Ubiquitinligase Hrd1 rekrutiert wird und ausschließlich für den Abbau löslicher luminaler ERAD-Substrate notwendig ist. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass der C-Terminus von Der1 die Interaktion zu Usa1 und damit die Rekrutierung des Proteins zur HRD-Ligase vermittelt. Usa1 wirkt nicht nur als Rekrutierungsfaktor, sondern induziert auch die Der1-Oligomerisierung. Punktmutationen in den Transmembrandomänen von Der1 beeinträchtigen die Dislokation luminaler Substratproteine aus dem ER. Um weitere Hinweise für eine Beteiligung von Der1 beim Substrattransport zu erhalten, wurde die Methode des zielgerichtetem in vivo photocrosslinking für Der1 angewendet. Hierbei wurden bestimmte Positionen von Der1 mit dem photoreaktiven Aminosäureanalogon p-Benzoylphenylalanin markiert, was die Ausbildung von Quervernetzungen von Der1 zu Interaktionspartnern nach einer UV-Bestrahlung ermöglichte. Schließlich konnte auf diese Weise eine räumliche Nähe der luminal exponierten Bereiche von Der1 zum Substratrezeptor Hrd3 gezeigt werden, während die Transmembransegmente Quervernetzungen zu Hrd1 ausbildeten. Beide Bereiche von Der1 konnten zudem mit einem luminalen ERAD-Substrat quervernetzt werden. Anhand dieser Ergebnisse wurde somit erstmals eine direkte Beteiligung von Der1 insbesondere in den ersten Schritten der Substratdislokation gezeigt, was eine Funktion von Der1 als zentrale Komponente des Exportkomplexes nahelegt. / Newly synthesized proteins of the secretory pathway are subjected to an efficient quality control system in the endoplasmic reticulum. In order to prevent a harmful aggregation misfolded proteins are exported via a largely unknown mechanism into the cytosol and degraded by the ubiquitin-proteasome system in a process termed ER associated degradation (ERAD). In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the HRD-ligase constitutes a central component of ERAD. A subunit of this multi-enzyme complex is the small multispanning membrane protein Der1, which is exclusively required for the degradation of misfolded ER luminal proteins but dispensable for the turnover of membrane-bound substrates. In this study a short conserved motif in the cytosolic carboxyterminus of Der1 was identified that mediates the binding to the HRD-ligase. Moreover, co-immunoprecipitation experiments show that Der1 forms oligomers, which relies on its assembly into the degradation complex. Mutations in the transmembrane domains of Der1 block the export of soluble proteins across the ER-membrane. To further investigate the function of Der1 in substrate dislocation an in vivo site-specific photocrosslinking approach was applied. Various positions of Der1 were labelled with the photoreactive amino acid analogue p-benzoyl-phenylalanine followed by UV irradiation of living cells expressing these Der1 constructs. The crosslinking experiments reveal a spatial proximity of ER luminal exposed parts of Der1 to the substrate receptor Hrd3. By contrast, the membrane-embedded domains of Der1 reside adjacent to the ubiquitin ligase Hrd1. Intriguingly, both regions also form crosslinks to a client protein. In summary the data of this work imply that multimeric Der1 initiates the export of aberrant polypeptides from the ER-lumen by threading such molecules into the ER-membrane and routing them to Hrd1 for ubiquitylation.

Der Einzeller Eimeria tenella zählt zu den hochpathogenen Parasiten des Haushuhns und ist Verursacher der Blinddarm-Kokzidiose, eine Erkrankung, die zu hohen ökonomischen Belastungen in der Geflügelindustrie führt. Zur Zeit existiert noch kein Impfstoff, der auf Basis von einzelnen Antigenen wirksam ist. Insbesondere die Identifizierung und Charakterisierung von sekretorischen Proteinen, welche an der Parasit-Wirtszell-Interaktion beteiligt sind, könnte einen Beitrag zur Entwicklung einer Immunprophylaxe darstellen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, sekretorische E. tenella-Proteine zu identifizieren und ausgewählte cDNA-Sequenzen in DNA-Immunisierungsstudien zu überprüfen. Um ein DNA-Immunisierungsprotokoll für Hühner zu erarbeiten, wurden die cDNAs von drei schon bekannten E. tenella-Antigenen alleine oder in Fusion zur cDNA des stabilisierenden enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) in zwei unterschiedliche DNA-Immunisierungsvektoren (pCDNA3, pVR1012) kloniert. Die Überprüfung der Serokonversion zeigte, dass nach DNA-Immunisierung von Hühnern mit beiden Vektoren bzw. mit und ohne EGFP-Fusion vergleichbare Immunantworten induziert wurden. D.h. mit dem etablierten DNA-Immunisierungsprotokoll konnte eine Expression heterologer (Eimerien) Gene im Huhn erzielt werden. Um neue sekretorische E. tenella-Proteine zu identifizieren wurden bioinformatische und experimentelle Methoden eingesetzt. Über die bioinformatischen Analysen wurden aus E. tenella-expressed sequence tag (EST)-Datenbanken 54 putativ sekretierte E. tenella-Sequenzen extrahiert für die aufgrund ihrer beschriebenen Funktion und Lokalisierung eine Beteiligung an der Wirts-Parasit-Interaktion abgeleitet wurde. Mittels funktioneller Komplementierung in Hefen konnten aus einer E. tenella-Sporozoiten-cDNA-Bank 25 sekretorische Sequenzen identifiziert werden. Die cDNA-Sequenzen von 13 neu identifizierten sekretorischen Proteinen wurden in DNA-Immunisierungsstudien überprüft. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass beide Methoden geeignet sind, um sekretorische Proteine von E. tenella zu identifizieren. Aufgrund der Erkenntnisse dieser Arbeit, sollten jedoch weitere verbesserte Immunisierungsprotokolle erarbeitet werden, um die immunprotektive Wirkung der isolierten Kandidaten-Antigene von E. tenella in Hühnern zu überprüfen. Wie die vorliegende Arbeit bestätigt, eignet sich die Methode der DNA-Immunisierung vermutlich als Grundlage solcher Verfahren, wobei zukünftig die Induktion der essentiellen intestinalen Immunantwort im Vordergrund stehen sollte. / The protozoan parasite Eimeria tenella is highly pathogenic in chickens and causes caecal coccidosis that contribute to high economic losses in poultry farming. At the moment no vaccine based on a single antigen is available. The identification and characterization of proteins that are involved in host parasite interaction could particularly contribute to the development of immunoprophylactic control strategies. In order to establish a DNA immunisation protocol, cDNA of three already known E. tenella antigens were subcloned alone or in fusion to the stabilising fusion partner enhanced green flurescence protein (EGFP) into two different DNA immunisation vectors (pCDNA3, pVR1012). Following DNA immunisation of chickens using both vectors with or without EGFP fusion, respectively, the induction of comparable immune responses were shown by serum conversion. This implies it was possible to achieve heterologous (Eimeria) gene expression in chickens with the established immunisation protocol. In order to identify new E. tenella secretory proteins bioinformatic and experimental approaches were used. Following bioinformatic analysis 54 putatively secretory E. tenella sequences were identified for which roles in host parasite interaction were surmised, due to their localisation and function. The identification of secreted proteins from a E. tenella sporozoite cDNA library using a functional complementation assay in yeast resulted in 25 unique sequences. The cDNA of 13 newly identified secretory proteins were tested in DNA immunisation studies. The results showed that both methods are capable of identifying secretory proteins of E. tenella. Owing to the results presented here, new immunisation protocols should be established to test the immune protective capacity of candidate antigens of E. tenella in chickens. The present study confirmed the method of DNA immunisation as a basic tool for such new protocols. In future, however, DNA immunisation protocols should focus on the induction of essential intestinal immune responses.

Proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) may lead to the formation of the Abeta peptide, the major constituent of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer`s disease. The full-length APP is a substrate for at least 2 different (alpha and beta) proteases ("secretases"). The beta-secretase, BACE, cleaves APP in the first step of processing leading to the formation of the neurotoxic Abeta. BACE competes for APP with alpha-secretase, which cleaves APP within its Abeta sequence, thus precluding Abeta formation. It is thus important to understand how is the access of the alpha- and beta-secretase to APP regulated and how are the individual activities of these secretases modulated. Both these regulatory mechanisms, access to substrate and direct activity modulation, can be determined by the lipid composition of the membrane. Integral membrane proteins (like APP and BACE), can be viewed as solutes in a two-dimensional liquid membrane, and as such their state, and biological activity, critically depend on the physico-chemical character (fluidity, curvature, surface charge distribution, lateral domain heterogeneity etc.) of the lipid bilayer. These collective membrane properties will influence the activity of embedded membrane proteins. In addition, activity regulation may involve a direct interaction with a specific lipid (cofactor or co-structure function). Interactions of membrane proteins are furthermore affected by lateral domain organization of the membrane. Previous results had suggested that the regulation of the activity of the alpha- and beta-secretases and of their access to APP is lipid dependent, and involves lipid rafts. Using the baculovirus expression system, we have purified recombinant human full-length APP and BACE to homogeneity, and reconstituted them in large (~100nm, LUVs) and giant (10-150microm, GUVs) unilamellar vesicles. Using a soluble peptide substrate mimicking the beta-cleavage site of APP, we have examined the involvement of individual lipid species in modulating BACE activity in LUVs of various lipid compositions. We have identified 3 groups of lipids that stimulate proteolytic activity of BACE: 1.cerebrosides, 2.anionic glycerophospholipids, 3. cholesterol. Furthermore, we have co-reconstituted APP and BACE together in LUVs and demonstrated that BACE cleaves APP at the correct site, generating the beta-cleaved ectodomain identical to that from cells. We have developed an assay to quantitatively follow the beta-cleavage in proteoliposomes, and we have shown that the rate of cleavage in total brain lipid proteoliposomes is higher than in phosphatidylcholine vesicles. We have also studied partitioning of APP and BACE in GUVs between liquid ordered (lo) and liquid disordered (ld) phases. In this system, significant part of the BACE pool (about 20%) partitions into the lo phase, and its partitioning into lo phase can be further enhanced by cross-linking of membrane components. Only negligible fraction of APP can be found in the lo phase. We continue to study the behavior of co-reconstituted APP and BACE in GUVs The work presented in this thesis has yielded some interesting results and raised further questions. One of the important assignments of this project will in the next stage be the characterization of the impact of membrane domain organization on the beta-cleavage. Different domain arrangements that can be hypothesized in cell membranes can be modeled by varying the degree of phase fragmentation in proteoliposomes comprising reconstituted APP and BACE.

Proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) may lead to the formation of the Abeta peptide, the major constituent of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer`s disease. The full-length APP is a substrate for at least 2 different (alpha and beta) proteases ("secretases"). The beta-secretase, BACE, cleaves APP in the first step of processing leading to the formation of the neurotoxic Abeta. BACE competes for APP with alpha-secretase, which cleaves APP within its Abeta sequence, thus precluding Abeta formation. It is thus important to understand how is the access of the alpha- and beta-secretase to APP regulated and how are the individual activities of these secretases modulated. Both these regulatory mechanisms, access to substrate and direct activity modulation, can be determined by the lipid composition of the membrane. Integral membrane proteins (like APP and BACE), can be viewed as solutes in a two-dimensional liquid membrane, and as such their state, and biological activity, critically depend on the physico-chemical character (fluidity, curvature, surface charge distribution, lateral domain heterogeneity etc.) of the lipid bilayer. These collective membrane properties will influence the activity of embedded membrane proteins. In addition, activity regulation may involve a direct interaction with a specific lipid (cofactor or co-structure function). Interactions of membrane proteins are furthermore affected by lateral domain organization of the membrane. Previous results had suggested that the regulation of the activity of the alpha- and beta-secretases and of their access to APP is lipid dependent, and involves lipid rafts. Using the baculovirus expression system, we have purified recombinant human full-length APP and BACE to homogeneity, and reconstituted them in large (~100nm, LUVs) and giant (10-150microm, GUVs) unilamellar vesicles. Using a soluble peptide substrate mimicking the beta-cleavage site of APP, we have examined the involvement of individual lipid species in modulating BACE activity in LUVs of various lipid compositions. We have identified 3 groups of lipids that stimulate proteolytic activity of BACE: 1.cerebrosides, 2.anionic glycerophospholipids, 3. cholesterol. Furthermore, we have co-reconstituted APP and BACE together in LUVs and demonstrated that BACE cleaves APP at the correct site, generating the beta-cleaved ectodomain identical to that from cells. We have developed an assay to quantitatively follow the beta-cleavage in proteoliposomes, and we have shown that the rate of cleavage in total brain lipid proteoliposomes is higher than in phosphatidylcholine vesicles. We have also studied partitioning of APP and BACE in GUVs between liquid ordered (lo) and liquid disordered (ld) phases. In this system, significant part of the BACE pool (about 20%) partitions into the lo phase, and its partitioning into lo phase can be further enhanced by cross-linking of membrane components. Only negligible fraction of APP can be found in the lo phase. We continue to study the behavior of co-reconstituted APP and BACE in GUVs The work presented in this thesis has yielded some interesting results and raised further questions. One of the important assignments of this project will in the next stage be the characterization of the impact of membrane domain organization on the beta-cleavage. Different domain arrangements that can be hypothesized in cell membranes can be modeled by varying the degree of phase fragmentation in proteoliposomes comprising reconstituted APP and BACE.