Les procédés lithographiques sont de nos jours très utilisés au sein de l’industrie de la microélectronique pour réaliser des matériaux fonctionnels de taille nanométrique. L’obtention de composants de taille de plus en petite (<100 nm) nécessite la mise en œuvre de nouveaux procédés de fabrication. Les travaux de recherches réalisés dans cette thèse portent sur l’étude d’un nouveau concept de lithographie par microcopie à force atomique (AFM). L'objectif principal est d'utiliser la pointe d’un AFM comme outil pour promouvoir des réactions catalysées sur une zone bien définie d’une surface greffée. De cette manière, diverses molécules ont pu être greffées sélectivement et spatialement pour conduire à des objets finis en 3 dimensions. Afin de mieux comprendre le mécanisme réactionnel, différents paramètres physico-chimiques ont été étudiés dans la première partie : vitesse de balayage de la pointe, force appliquée, distance interligne lors de la gravure du motif, largeur de lignes limites, durée de vie de la pointe catalytique et influence de la flexibilité du catalyseur présent sur la pointe. La deuxième partie consiste à la réalisation de nanostructures avec des molécules aux propriétés physico-chimiques particulières (optique, électrique, catalytique) ainsi qu’à la construction de nanostructures tridimensionnelles. Quelques résultats marquants sont l’obtention d’une largeur de ligne limite de 25 nm, d’une surface de greffage minimum de 480 µm² et d’une structure de forme pyramidale composée de trois niveaux moléculaires distincts. / Lithography processes are widely used in the microelectronics industry for the realization of functional materials of nanometric size. To obtain components increasingly small (<100 nm) the development of new manufacturing processes is requires. The research presented in this thesis concerns the study of a new concept of lithography by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). The main objective is to use the tip of an AFM as a tool to promote catalysed reactions on a well defined zone of a grafted surface. In this way, diverse molecules could be grafted selectively and spatially to form three dimensioned objects. To better understand the reaction mechanism, different physico-chemical parameters were studied in the first part: the scanning speed of the tip, the strength applied, the interline spacing during the engraving pattern, the width lines limits, the life time of the catalytic tip and the influence of the catalyst flexibility coated to the tip. The second part consists in the realization of nanostructures with molecules that have particular physico-chemical properties (optical, electric, catalytic) and the construction of three-dimensional nanostructures. Some pertinent results are the achievement of line width of 25 nm, a minimum grafted surface of 480 µm² and the formation of a structure of pyramidal shape constituted of three different molecular levels.

Filmes finos de dióxido de titânio (TiO2), ácido poli(vinil sulfônico) (PVS) e oxo-hidroxo de tungstênio (WOxHy) foram preparados a partir do método de automontagem Layer-by-Layer (LbL), permitindo um alto controle de espessura e nanoarquitetura. As propriedades de armazenamento e transporte de íons lítio foram investigadas visando à utilização destes materiais em baterias secundárias e dispositivos eletrocrômicos. Foram utilizadas as técnicas de microscopia de força atômica (AFM), voltametria cíclica, cronoamperometria, titulação galvanostática intermitente (GITT), espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIE) e espectroscopia eletrônica. Os filmes apresentaram boa ciclabilidade e reversibilidade química nos processos de intercalação/desintercalação de íons lítio. Os filmes TiO2, TiO2/PVS e TiO2/WOxHy apresentaram carga reversível de 254 mC.cm-3, 260 mC.cm-3 e 296 mC.cm-3, respectivamente, e eficiência eletrocrômica de 30,9 cm2.C-1, 26,1 cm2.C-1 e 24,9 cm2.C-1, respectivamente, sob a incidência de radiação eletromagnética monocromática em 660 nm. Finalmente, valores do coeficiente de difusão de íons lítio foram determinados e relacionados com as capacidades específicas e com a velocidade da frente de onda colorida, a partir do modelo proposto neste trabalho. / Thin films of titanium dioxide (TiO2), poly(vinyl sulfonic acid) (PVS) and tungsten oxo-hydroxy (WOxHy) were prepared using the Layer-by-Layer (LbL) method, allowing for strict control of its thickness and nanoarchitecture. The properties of these films concerning lithium ion transport and storage were investigated, so that these materials can be applied in secondary batteries and electrochromic devices in the future. The films were characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM), cyclic voltammetry (CV), chronoamperometry, galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and electronic spectroscopy. The films presented good chemical cyclability and reversibility regarding the Li+ insertion and deinsertion process. TiO2, TiO2/PVS, and TiO2/WOxHy films presented reversible charge about 254 mC.cm-3, 260 mC.cm-3, and 296 mC.cm-3, respectively, and coloration efficiency under 660 nm radiation of 30.9 cm2.C-1, 26.1 cm2.C-1, and 24.9 cm2.C-1, respectively. Finally, lithium ion diffusion coefficients can be determined and related with specific capacities and diffusion of coloring waves using the model proposed in this work.

Monocamadas auto-organizadas formadas pela quimissorção de alcanotióis sobre ouro apresentam estruturas bem definidas, organizadas e reprodutíveis. As propriedades de SAMs, aliadas à facilidade de síntese, têm atraído o interesse da comunidade cientifica o que ocasionou um grande avanço na área de nanotecnologia, especialmente em engenharia de superfícies. Neste trabalho, avaliou-se a modificação de um substrato de ouro com uma mistura dos ácidos 3-mercaptopropiônico e 11-mercaptoundecanóico. Com isso procurou-se controlar a configuração da superfície da SAM a fim de se obter um arranjo com ilhas de 3amp circundadas por 11amu, similar a um conjunto de ultramicroeletrodos. A SAM mista foi produzida por incubação de um substrato de ouro em solução etanólica contendo ambos os tiois. O estudo do processo redox do par [Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3- demonstrou que monocamadas de 3amp se comportam como a superfície de ouro não modificado, apresentando os mesmos valores de corrente de pico (Ip), potencial de pico (Ep) e resistência de transferência de carga (Rtc), pois permitem que ocorra a transferência eletrônica por efeito de tunelamento quântico dos elétrons através da monocamada. Entretanto monocamadas de 11amu demonstram comportamento isolante, apresentando uma Rtc 250 vezes maior e Ip significativamente menores que a observada para a SAM-3amp. As cargas de dessorção redutiva e variação de massa obtidas com a MECQ para a SAM mista evidenciaram alto recobrimento da superfície e um mecanismo de adsorção que varia com o tempo de incubação do substrato em solução contendo os tiois. Assim, a configuração da superfície com domínios de 3amp bem estabelecidos é alcançada com 20 horas de incubação do substrato. O perfil observado com a voltametria cíclica, aliado aos dados obtidos com a EIE comprova a existência de segregação de fases na SAM mista contendo regiões recobertas pelo 3amp (raio médio de 4,3 &micro;m) circundadas por 11amu (com separação média de 75,42 &micro;m). O estudo do comportamento eletroquímico do fisetin confirma o surgimento de propriedades diferenciadas com a SAM mista, onde observou-se apenas um processo redox sem que o analito permanecesse adsorvido na superfície da SAM. Todavia para a SAM-3amp e ouro não modificado foi observado dois processos redoxes seguido de adsorção irreversível do produto da reação na superfície eletródica. Utilizando a SAM mista como sensor eletroquímico para determinação de fisetin em água alcançou-se um limite de detecção de 1,67 x10-8 mol L-1. / Self-assembled monolayers obtained by chemiosorption of alkanethiols on gold present well-defined, organized and reproducible structures. The unique properties exhibited by such surfaces, allied to the great facility to obtain, have attracted the interest of the scientific community and caused a significant advance in the nanotechnology research, especially in the surface engineering one. In this work, the modification of gold substrate with a mixture of 3-mercaptopropionic acid and 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid was evaluated. The aim was control the surface of the SAMs in order to obtain an island arrangement of 3mpa isolated by 11mua, similar to an array of ultramicroelectrodes. The mixed-SAM was built by the incubation of Au substrate in an ethanolic solution containing both thiols. The redox couple [Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3- study demonstrated that pure 3mpa monolayers behaves like the bare gold surface, presenting barely the same parameters of peak current (Ip), peak potential (Ep) and charge transfer resistance (Rct), since it allows the electronic transference to occurs by quantum tunneling effect through the monolayer. On the other hand the 11mua monolayers showed an insulating behavior and a Rct value nearly 250 times greater and, consequently, Ip values significantly less than that for 3mpa. The reductive desorption charges and mass changes obtained with an EQCM for the mixed-SAM indicated the high coverage of gold surface and a adsorption mechanism that depends on the incubation time of the substrate in the thiols solution. The surface configuration with 3mpa domains is reached after 20 hours of immersion. The cyclic voltammetric profile, together with the data from electrochemical impedance spectroscopy , proved the existence of phases segregation in the mixed-SAM with surface regions covered solely by 3mpa (with mean radius of 4.3 &micro;m) surrounded by 11mua with a mean separation of 75.42 &micro;m. The electrochemical behavior of the flavonoid fisetin confirms the rising of differentiated properties with the mixed-SAM, where only one electrochemical process was able to be observed, without irreversible adsorption of the analyte. For 3mpa and bare gold surfaces, two (or more) electrochemical processes were observed together with the blocking of the electrode surface by irreversible adsorption of the reaction product. The utilization of the mixed-SAM with electrochemical sensor for fisetin determination in pure water yielded a detection limit of 1.67 x10-8 mol L-1.

Este trabalho descreve a preparação, a caracterização e o uso de um biossensor bienzimático confeccionado com as enzimas glicose oxidase e frutose dehidrogenase imobilizadas em camadas auto-organizadas ou self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) de cistamina para a quantificação de açúcares em alimentos. Após o preparo do eletrodo de ouro com a SAM de cistamina, biossensores foram construídos e para obtenção de melhores respostas, condições foram otimizadas, tais como: concentração do mediador tetratiafulvaleno (TTF), porcentagem de glutaraldeído, temperatura e tempo de vida do biossensor. Com as condições estabelecidas, fez-se então, a determinação analítica da D-glicose e da D-frutose em eletrólito puro pelo método da adição de padrão e os resultados foram obtidos por voltametria cíclica e cronoamperometria. A corrente de pico de oxidação do mediador de elétrons (TTF) aumentou proporcionalmente com o aumento da concentração e não ocorreram deslocamentos nos potenciais de pico. Os limites de detecção (LD) foram encontrados por meio do desvio padrão da média aritmética de dez amperogramas do branco no potencial equivalente aos dos picos de oxidação do mediador de elétrons TTF, juntamente com o valor do coeficiente angular da curva analítica. Após a obtenção da curva analítica o biossensor foi aplicado diretamente em amostras de refrigerante dietético e não dietético, bem como em amostras de adoçantes comerciais, onde foram realizados testes comparativos da resposta dos biossensores. Para o eletrólito puro e amostras de refrigerante dietético e de adoçantes, ou seja, onde não há presença de D-glicose e D-frutose, notou-se a ausência de corrente de pico, enquanto que para as amostras de refrigerante não dietético, houve um valor significativo de resposta de corrente, indicando a presença dos açúcares em estudo. Com o propósito de verificar a influência de interferentes e o efeito de matriz, foi construída uma curva analítica para a D-glicose e para a D-frutose, em amostras de refrigerante dietético e adoçantes, onde foram obtidas as menores quantidade destes açúcares. Para o refrigerante não dietético, foi determinado o valor inicial dos açúcares presentes nas amostras. Pode-se afirmar que a utilização dos biossensores baseados nas enzimas GOx e FDH mostraram-se eficientes para a determinação dos açúcares D-glicose e D-frutose nas amostras analisadas (com diferença significativa nos valores de corrente), apresentando uma resposta rápida, além da eliminação do efeito da matriz. A utilização do mediador de elétrons (TTF) possibilitou a reação em potencial próximo de zero, diminuindo o efeito de interferentes e evitando a desnaturação das enzimas. / This work describes the preparation, characterization and application of a bienzymatic biosensor based in the glucose oxidaze and fructose dehydrogenase immobilized on self-assembled monolayer of cystamine for sugar quantification in foodstuff. After the modification of the gold electrode with cystamine, the biosensors were developed and optimized for best responses. Optimization parameters were: mediator tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) concentration, glutaraldehyde percentage, temperature and life time of the biosensor. With the best conditions established, the analytical determinations of d-glucose and d-fructose in pure phosphate buffer were conducted by the standard additions method and the results obtained by cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry. The oxidation peak current related to the TTF voltammetric behavior raised proportionally to the increasing concentration of d-glucose or d-fructose, in a given and constant peak potential. The methodology detection limits were found using the standard deviation of ten chronoamperograms of the blank solution, in the potential value corresponding to that of TTF oxidation, and the slope of the analytical curve. After the analytical curve acquirement the biosensor was directly applied in samples of diet or non-diet softdrinks, as well as in commercial sweeteners samples, with comparative tests of the biosensor responses. For pure electrolyte and for diet foodstuff samples, i.e., were there is not expectation for d-glucose or d-fructose existence, it was detected the lack of the voltammetric peak associated with the mediator oxidation. In non-diet samples, a pronounced voltammetric peak was obtained, testifying the presence of sugar in the electrolytes under study. The matrix effect was verified by means of an analytical curve obtained for both analytes (d-glucose and d-fructose), in diet and sweeteners samples, properly spiked with known amounts of each analyte. It can be concluded that the utilization of the biosensor based in GOx and FDH showed to be efficient for d-glucose and d-fructose determinations in the analysed samples, with a fast response time and elimination of the matrix effect. The mediator promoted the electrochemical reaction to occur in potentials very close to zero, minimizing the interferences or the enzyme denaturation.

A modificação de eletrodos por sistemas auto-organizados (SAM) é um dos temas mais discutidos em eletroquímica e eletroanalítica, principalmente por elevar a biocompatibilidade destas superfícies. O foco principal deste trabalho está na transferência eletrônica através das SAMs de moléculas de alcanotióis sobre a superfície de eletrodos de ouro. Com a finalidade de investigar o comportamento eletroquímico do par redox [Fe(CN)6]3-/[Fe(CN)6]4-,, as superfícies de ouro foram modificadas com SAMs de alcanotióis com cadeias carbônicas de diferentes comprimentos e suas misturas. Desta forma, foi possível observar que as superfícies modificadas com monocamadas com 2, 3 ou 4 átomos de carbono em sua cadeia permitem que a transferência de elétrons ocorra através da SAM, produzindo perfis voltamétricos muito similares aos observados com a superfície de ouro sem a modificação. Com cadeias carbônicas longas (até 11 átomos de carbono), a transferência eletrônica é totalmente bloqueada e nenhum perfil voltamétrico foi observado. Com o objetivo de explorar o bloqueio total da superfície modificada de moléculas de alcanotióis de cadeias longas, os excessos superficiais foram calculados por meio da carga voltamétrica obtida da dessorção redutiva. Observaram-se valores de excesso superficial próximos a 9,0x10-10 mol/cm2, o que demonstra uma cobertura completa dos sítios ativos da superfície, justificando assim a ausência da resposta eletroquímica. A superfície modificada com as misturas de monocamadas de cadeias carbônicas longas e curtas promoveu respostas voltamétricas interessantes, desde que as moléculas de cadeias curtas contenham menos que 4 átomos de carbono. Neste caso, respostas voltamétricas sigmoidais similares às de ultramicroeletrodos (UMEs) foram obtidas. Este efeito foi associado com a formação de conjuntos de UMEs formados na superfície do eletrodo. O raio e a separação entre os UMEs nestas superfícies foram calculados como sendo 42 e 221 &micro;m, respectivamente. Um total de 60 UMEs foi encontrado na superfície modificada. Estes UMEs foram formados por moléculas de cadeias menores totalmente emparedadas por cadeias maiores (moléculas de ácido 11- mercaptoundecanóico). Este comportamento reforça o propósito de que a transferência dos elétrons ocorra através das monocamadas de cadeia menor e que as moléculas de cadeia longa bloqueiam a superfície. Todos os experimentos voltamétricos foram seguidos de análises de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica os quais permitiram determinar a resistência de transferência de carga para cada modificação. Superfícies modificadas com alcanotióis de cadeia longa apresentaram elevados valores de transferência de carga, enquanto que as superfícies modificadas com alcanotióis de cadeia curta apresentam baixos valores de transferência eletrônica, em concordância com o comportamento voltamétrico observado. Finalmente, a organização de cada monocamada foi monitorada utilizando a microbalança eletroquímica de cristal de quartzo. Pela variação de massa com o tempo de imersão do eletrodo na solução contendo o alcanotiól de interesse foi possível observar etapas de adsorção/dessorção, com o aumento da organização da monocamada. Os valores teóricos de variação de massa calculados para a formação de uma monocamada completa na superfície eletroquímica, apresentaram excelente concordância com os dados experimentais obtidos pelo monitoramento do sistema ao longo dos experimentos (depois de aproximadamente 2 horas de imersão). / The modification of electrode surfaces with self-assembled monolayer (SAM) is one of the top subjects in electrochemistry and electroanalysis, mainly due to its much enhanced biocompatibility. In this study, the focuses are centered in the electron transfer through SAMs of alkanothiols assembled onto gold electrode surfaces. In order to investigate the electrochemical behavior of the redox couple [Fe(CN)6]3-/[Fe(CN)6]4-, Au surfaces were modified with SAMs of long and short carbon chains alkanethiols, as well as with their mixtures. In this way, it was possible to observe that surfaces modified with monolayers of 2, 3 or 4 carbon atoms in the chain allowed electrons transfer to occur through the SAM, generating a voltammetric profile very similar to those observed on bare Au surfaces. With longer carbon chains (up to 11 carbon atoms), the electron transfer was totally blocked and none voltammetric profile was observed. Aiming to explain the total blockage of the surface with long chain alkanethiols modifications, the surface excess of molecules were measured by the voltammetric charge required for their reductive desorption. It was always observed surface excesses near to 9.0x10-10 mol/cm2, which is related to a full coverage of the active sites on the surface, thus justifying the absence of electrochemical response. The surface modification with mixtures of long and short carbon chains monolayers promoted very interesting voltammetric responses, as long as the short chains contain less than 4 carbon atoms. In this case, sigmoidal voltammetric responses were obtained, very similar to those observed for ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs). Such effect was associated to the formation of UMEs arrays in the electrode surface. The radius and separation of each UME in this surface array was evaluated as 42 and 221 &micro;m, respectively. A value of 60 UMEs were found for the entire surface. These UMEs were formed by the short chain molecules totally walled by the long chain ones (mercaptoundecanoic acid molecules). Such behavior reinforces the proposition of electron transference through the short chain alkanethiol layer and surface blockage by the long chain one. All the voltammetric experiments were followed by electrochemical impedance spectroscopic analysis which allowed were determined the charge transfer resistance for each modification. Very large values were determined for long carbon chains while for the short chains much smaller resistance values were found, as expected by the voltammetric behavior. Finally, the assembling of each monolayer was followed by quartz crystal microbalance measurements. By the electrode mass variation with time of immersion in a solution containing the alkanethiol of interest it was possible to observe several steps of adsorption/desorption, as the organization of the monolayer increases. The theoretical values for mass variation for a full monolayer in the electrochemical surfaces were found to be in highly agreement with the experimental ones, measured in long time experiments (after approximately 2 hours of immersion).

O presente trabalho está direcionado à pesquisa básica de novos materiais com propriedades adequadas para armazenamento de íons lítio e aplicação em dispositivos eletrocrômicos. Realizou-se uma investigação eletroquímica de nanocompósitos automontados à base de hexaniobato (H2K2Nb6O17)/polialilamina (PAH), além da sua morfologia e os efeitos gerados pelo transporte iônico e eletrônico nas propriedades eletrocrômicas, visando um melhor entendimento dos processos envolvidos em eletrodos com alta eficiência eletrocrômica. Filmes finos foram crescidos a partir do método de automontagem layer-by-layer (LbL), o que permite o controle da espessura e nanoarquitetura, de forma a aumentar a velocidade de difusão de íons lítio na matriz H2K2RNb6O17/PAH, que corresponde a velocidade limitante da reação. Propõe-se um novo método para a determinação do coeficiente de difusão óptico de íons lítio nestes filmes, baseado na Técnica de Titulação Galvanostática Intermitente (GITT). Eletrodos modificados como H2K2Nb6O17, obtidos a partir dos métodos dip-coating e casting também foram examinados para uma melhor compreensão a respeito da intercalação dos íons lítio na matriz hospedeira. / This work is devoted to the basic research of new materials with properties suitable for storage of lithium ions and application in electrochromic devices. An electrochemical investigation of self-assembled nanocomposites based on hexaniobate (H2K2Nb6O17) / poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) was performed, as well as their morphology and the effects generated by the electronic and ionic transports on the electrochromic properties, aiming at a better understanding of the processes involved in electrodes with high electrochromic efficiency. Thin films were grown by means of the layer-by-layer (LBL) self-assembly method, which enables the control of thickness and nanoarchitecture in order to increase the diffusion speed of lithium ions in the matrix H2KR2Nb6O17/PAH that corresponds to the limiting-rate step of the reaction. A new method, based on the Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique (GITT), was proposed for determining the optical diffusion coefficient of lithium ions in the films. H2KR2Nb6O17 modified electrodes obtained from the dip-coating and casting methods were also examined for a better understanding on the intercalation of lithium ions in the host matrix.

"Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) are organized molecular assemblies that are formed by spontaneous adsorption of a compound in solution to a surface (e.g. alkanethiols on gold). The design, preparation, and characterization of several self-assembled monolayers and multilayers on surfaces (gold, indium tin oxide and quartz) are described. The systems were chosen based on their ability to form ordered films and to perform a given device function. SAMs were fabricated with selected functional groups at the air-monolayer interface, capable of complexing metal ions (e.g. dicarboxypyridine, dicarboxybenzene, imidazole, 4-hydroxypyridine) with the purpose of using these SAMs to construct multilayered films. Deposition of a second layer consisting of metal ions (e.g. Cu(II), Co(II) and Fe(III)), occurs by non-covalent metal ligand binding interactions between the metal ion layer and the different organic ligands on the surface. Deposition of subsequent layers was achieved by the incorporation of the appropriate organic ligands and metal ions. These monolayers and multilayered films were characterized by contact angle measurements, ellipsometry, grazing angle FT-IR, cyclic voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy following deposition of each layer on the film. Electrochemical analysis of the multilayered films shows alternating insulating/conducting behavior (cyclic voltammetry) and alternating changes in films capacitance (impedance spectroscopy) depending on the outermost layer of the film. Films capped with an organic layer show low conductivity, while films capped with a metal layer show conducting behavior. The electrochemical behavior of the films is related to the degree of “leakiness” or electrolyte solution permeation through the film, which is high for films with metal layers as the top layer and decreases once the film is capped with an organic layer. The alternating conducting/insulating behavior of the films allows for fabrication of multilayered thin films of variable thickness and tunable conducting properties. Ordered films were fabricated with up to seven layers of dicarboxypyridine and Cu(II), and 4-hydroxypyridine and Fe(III) metal-ligand units. The construction of these films provides an example of molecular films that could function as molecular wires or junctions due to their controllable electrochemical properties. Photocurrent generating films were fabricated by incorporation of chromophore groups (e.g. pyrene, porphyrins) into the multilayered structures. These films generate cathodic or anodic current upon photoexcitation of the chromophores. The monolayers functionalized with different organic ligands were also used to study lanthanide complexation on the surfaces. Successful deposition of different lanthanide ions was achieved from DMSO solutions. Monolayers of a bicyclic structure, 4, 7, 13, 16-tetraoxa-1,10,21-triaza-bicycle[8.8.5] tricosane-19,23-dione, attached to a hexadecanethiol molecule were used to study the ability of metal ion detection on the surface using electrochemical (cyclic voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy) techniques. The SAMs show higher complexation affinity for Li+ than for Na+ or K+. Preliminary studies were also carried out to investigate the ability of different SAMs to cell adhesion interactions. Future experiments will help elucidate a systematic relation of cell adherence and the bulk and molecular-level properties of the functionalized surfaces. The different multilayered films described in this dissertation served as preliminary models for different molecular scale device applications. Current work is focused in the design and preparation of more efficient photocurrent generating films, highly selective sensors for different types of ions, surfaces for cell adhesion and microbial interactions, and the study of other potential applications such as the design of micro and nanofluidic devices. "

This thesis provides a compendium for the use of microcontact printing in fabricating electrical devices. Work has been undertaken to examine the use of soft lithographic techniques for employment in electronic manufacture. This thesis focusses on the use of high electric field generators as a means to producing electroluminescent devices. These devices provide a quantifiable output in the form of light. Analysis of the electrical performance of electrode structures can be determined by their success at producing light. A prospective reduction in driving voltage would deem these devices more efficient, longer lasting and an improvement on current specification. The work focussed on the viability of using relatively crude print techniques to create high resolution structures. This was carried out successfully and demonstrated that lighting structures of 75 μm and 25 μm have been produced. Microcontact printing has been established as a method for patterning gold surfaces with a functionalising self-assembled monolayer using alkanethiol molecules. This layer is then utilised as an etch resist layer to expose gold tracks for use as electric field generator electrode arrays. Through careful analysis of each step of the printing process, techniques were developed and reported to create a robust and repeatable print mechanism for reliability and accuracy. These techniques were employed to optimise the print process culminating in the development of each stage and final electrode structures mounted on a rigid backplate for use as electroluminescent devices for characterisation. These devices were then modelled for their electrical characteristics and investigated for being used in low voltage application. In this case for the development of electroluminescent applications, a driving voltage of 65 V was achieved and represents a significant advance to the field of printed electronics and Electroluminescence.

Neste trabalho realizou-se o estudo estrutural e termodinâmico de sistemas micelares em solução formados por surfactantes de diferentes classes, tais como SDS (aniônico), TTAB (catiônico), DM (não-iônico) e SB310 (zwiteriônico). A abordagem experimental proposta neste trabalho consiste do estudo simultâneo de aspectos estruturais e termodinâmicos. Para o estudo estrutural utilizou-se as técnicas de raios X à baixo ângulo (SAXS) e Condutimetria, e pelo ajuste dos dados experimentais pode-se determinar parâmetros como a anisotropia de forma, número de agregação, grau de ionização, bem como a concentração micelar crítica das micelas em solução. O comportamento da função de distribuição de pares de distância permitiu concluir que todas as micelas formam estruturas do tipo core-shell, porém diferem em tamanho dependendo da composição da micela. O buffer usado é possivelmente o responsável por causar a diminuição da concentração micelar crítica e aumento do grau de ionização (para surfactantes iônicos) quando comparados os valores obtidos neste trabalho com aqueles da literatura, que em geral usa água como solvente. Para o estudo termodinâmico utilizou-se a técnica de calorimetria de titulação isotérmica (ITC) e pelo ajuste dos dados experimentais pode-se determinar os valores de entalpia micelar e concentração micelar crítica. A combinação dos resultados obtidos das técnicas de ITC e Condutimetria permitiu calcular o valor energia livre de Gibbs e a entropia de micelização. A partir da determinação dos parâmetros descritos acima, pode-se caracterizar a estrutura e aspectos termodinâmicos de micelas em solução. A metodologia apresentada neste manuscrito consegue fornecer parâmetros independentes e ao mesmo tempo complementares, o que acaba permitindo um estudo correlacionado e confiável. / In this work was carried out the study of the structural and thermodynamic of micelar systems in solution formed by different classes of surfactants such as SDS (anionic) TTAB (cationic), DM (non-ionic) and SB310 (zwitterionic). The experimental approach proposed in this manuscript consists of the simultaneous study of structural and thermodynamic aspects. For structural studies it was utilized the techniques of Small Angle X ray Scattering (SAXS) and Conductometry, and by fitting the experimental data it was possible to evaluate parameters such as the anisotropy, aggregation number, degree of ionization, and the critical micelle concentration of the micelles in solution. From the analysis of the behavior of the pair distance distribution function we concluded that the micelles form \"core-shell\" structures, but differ in size depending on the composition of the micelle. The buffer used is possibly responsible for causing the decrease of critical micelle concentration and the increase of the degree of ionization (for ionic surfactants) when values obtained in this study are compared to those ones in the literature, which usually uses water as a solvent. For the thermodynamic study we have used the technique of Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC) and by fitting the experimental data we could determine the enthalpy values and critical micelle concentration. The combination of the results of ITC and Conductometry techniques allowed us to evaluate the value of Gibbs free energy and entropy of micellization. From the determination of the parameters described above we could characterize the structure and thermodynamic aspects of the micelles in solution. The methodology presented in this work can provide independent and complementary parameters, which ends up allowing a correlated and reliable study.

<p>Immobilization of different bio- and organic molecules on solid supports is fundamental within many areas of science. Sometimes, it is desirable to obtain a directed orientation of the molecule in the immobilized state. In this thesis, the copper (I) catalyzed Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, referred to as a “click chemistry” reaction, was explored as a means to perform directed immobilization of small molecule ligands on gold surfaces. The aim was to synthesize alkyne- and azide-terminated alkanethiols that would form well-organized self assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold from the commercially available substances orthoethylene glycol and bromo alkanoic acid. N-(23-azido-3,6,9,12,15,18,21-heptaoxatricosyl)-n-mercaptododekanamide/hexadecaneamide (n = 12, 16) were successfully synthesized and allowed to form SAMs of different compositions to study how the differences in density of the functional groups on the surface would influence the structure of the monolayer and the click chemistry reaction. The surfaces were characterized by different optical methods: ellipsometry, contact angle goniometry and infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy (IRAS). The click reaction was found to proceed at very high yields on all investigated surfaces. Finally, the biomolecular interaction between a ligand immobilized by click chemistry on the gold surfaces and a model protein (bovine carbonic anhydrase) was demonstrated by surface plasmon resonance using a Biacore system.</p>