Self-compassion has consistently been found to contribute significantly to psychological well-being, and previous research has found that it can be increased using a simple writing task. As the mechanism underlying task efficacy is unknown, this study investigated the role of belief. Belief was found to predict change in self-compassion, self-esteem, and depression, with higher levels being associated with less improvement, an effect in the opposite direction as hypothesized. However, increase in belief across the three trials was positively correlated with improvement in self-compassion, depression, anxiety, and stress, indicating that change in belief represents a different psychological effect than absolute level of belief. Further, those who increased in belief reported improvement in well-being, while those who decreased did not. Results suggest that task efficacy, at least in part, depends on the degree to which perspectives are reappraised to become more congruent with self-compassionate perspectives, as opposed to simply depending on task repetition.

Background: Compassion Focused Therapy aims to reduce shame through the development of compassion towards the self (Gilbert & Proctor, 2006). In a recent meta-analysis, MacBeth & Gumley (2012), identified self-compassion as a good predictor of mental wellbeing in adult populations. In addition, Werner et al (2012) provided preliminary evidence that difficulties with self-compassion may contribute to the development and maintenance of social anxiety. Despite wide recognition that social anxiety arises in adolescence and can be a pre-cursor to the development of other psychological disorders, the relationship between self-compassion and social anxiety is yet to be explored in younger populations. Objective: The following portfolio aims to add to the current literature by firstly, completing a systematic review to examine whether the association between shame and social anxiety is supported by empirical research and secondly, examining the relationship between self-compassion and social anxiety in an adolescent community sample. The role of recognised cognitive factors of social anxiety i.e. fear of negative evaluation, self-focused attention and cognitive avoidance in mediating the relationship between self-compassion and social anxiety and the role of possible confounders i.e. depression and generalised anxiety were also examined. Method: A systematic review of studies that assess the association between shame and social anxiety symptomology was undertaken. The empirical study comprised a cross-sectional design in which 414 community based adolescents, aged 14-18, were recruited from 4 local schools to complete 7 validated psychometric questionnaires: Self-compassion Scale (Neff, 2003), The Social Phobia Inventory (Connor et al, 2000), the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (LaGreca, 1998), The Cognitive Avoidance Questionnaire (Gosselin et al, 2002), the Self Consciousness Scales (Fenigstein et al, 1975), Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (Birmaher et al, 1995) and the Short Mood and Feeling Questionnaire (Angold et al, 1995). Systematic Review Results: Twenty one studies met the inclusion criteria of the systematic review and demonstrated a positive association between shame and social anxiety symptomology. Methodological factors, depression and gender were found to impact on the power of this association. Empirical Project Results: Self-compassion was found to be inversely related to social anxiety, r=-.551, p < .0001, 95%CI[-.62, .48], with both fear of negative evaluation and cognitive avoidance, but not self-focused attention, partially mediating this relationship. Self-compassion was found to be a unique predict of social anxiety, explaining additional variance when depression and generalised anxiety were controlled for. Conclusions: The above studies extend existing literature on the relationship between shame, social anxiety and self-compassion. In particular the use of an adolescent sample provides evidence of the usability and applicability of self-compassion concepts with younger populations. Similarly, the above studies expand our understanding of the concepts underlying social anxiety, specifically in adolescents, for whom social anxiety is extremely prevalent. It is hoped that the above research may highlight associations in need of further investigation, in particular with clinical samples, and inform the development of compassion focused adaptations or interventions for this population.

Background: Post-traumatic stress and exposure to early traumatic events are often characterised by negative self-cognitions and experiences of shame, guilt or blame. These symptoms are theoretically linked to the concept of self-compassion which is an important factor in affect regulation, and is predictive of mental wellbeing and psychological distress. Interventions aimed at increasing acceptance, non-judgement and self-compassion such as mindfulness may be useful in the treatment of post-traumatic stress symptoms. Methods: The first part of this portfolio presents a systematic review which aimed to collate and evaluate the existing research for the use of mindfulness based interventions to treat post-traumatic stress symptoms. The search process involved a systematic search of relevant research databases, hand search of relevant journals, and relevant authors were contacted. The second part of this portfolio presents a quantitative research study which explored the relationship between the experience of childhood trauma and self-compassion; and whether self-compassion was predictive of post-traumatic stress and growth in an adult clinical sample. Data were collected through postal survey and analysed using correlation and hierarchical regression analysis. Systematic Review Results: The systematic review resulted in 12 studies which met eligibility criteria, the majority of studies indicated positive outcomes with improvements in post-traumatic stress symptoms, particularly in reducing avoidance. Many of these studies lacked methodological rigour and further studies with more robust research design are required. Research Study Results: The quantitative study showed that greater experience of childhood emotional abuse, neglect, punishment and sexual abuse were significantly correlated with lower self-compassion in adulthood. Hierarchical regression showed that self-compassion was predictive of total post-traumatic stress symptoms, post-traumatic avoidance and intrusion when age, gender, exposure to traumatic events and childhood trauma were controlled. The experience of post-traumatic growth showed no significant relationship with self-compassion. Conclusions: Studies indicate that mindfulness interventions show promise for the treatment of PTSD symptoms, although further research with more robust methodology is needed. Greater experience of childhood abuse is related to lower self-compassion in adulthood and lower self-compassion is predictive of higher PTSD avoidance and intrusion symptoms. This suggests that future research investigating self-compassion interventions may be beneficial in treating PTSD.

People who are marginalized based on their sexual orientation or gender identity face heightened risk of negative health and psychological outcomes compared to more privileged populations (Meyer, 1995; Hughes, Szalacha, & McNair, 2010). Previous researchers have suggested that positive coping strategies may be beneficial in reducing the high risks of negative outcomes, such as depression, associated with Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) minority stress (Branscombe, Schmitt, & Harvey, 1999, Kertzner, 2001). Moreover, certain sociocultural factors, such as gender role stress (Eisler, 1995; Eisler & Blalock, 1991; Eisler & Skidmore, 1987; Gillespie & Eisler, 1992), may influence LGBTQ+ individuals’ experience of minority stress in unique ways, but gaps in this area of the literature remain. The purpose of this study will be to examine the relationships between gender role stress, LGBTQ+ minority stress, self-compassion, and depression in a sample of LGBTQ+ adults. I will conduct regression analyses and mediation analyses to test the following main hypotheses: (a) Gender role stress will be significantly associated with LGBTQ+ minority stress, (b) LGBTQ+ minority stress will be associated with higher levels of depression symptoms, and (c) self-compassion will fully mediate the relationship between LGBT minority stress and depression.

Purpose: This study assessed whether a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) adapted for social anxiety disorder (SAD) led to increases in self-compassion and trait mindfulness, and whether these increases mediated change in SAD symptom severity. Methods: Participants were randomly assigned to a 12-week MBI adapted for SAD (MBI-SAD, n = 21) or a wait-list control (WLC, n = 18). The MBI-SAD included aspects of the mindfulness-based stress reduction program, as well as explicit training in self-compassion and “mindful exposure”. Participants were assessed at baseline and weeks 6 and 12. Results: The MBI-SAD resulted in higher self-compassion and trait mindfulness and lower levels of social anxiety, compared to the WLC. Mediation analyses revealed that self-compassion and aspects of trait mindfulness mediated clinical response. Implications: Results suggest that self-compassion and aspects of trait mindfulness are possible mechanisms of change for the MBI-SAD. Results and their implications are discussed.

Background: Motivational Interviewing (MI) is an accepting and compassionate collaborative counselling style that has been linked with various desirable client outcomes. However, its association with self-compassion (SC), an important psychological resource is unknown. One context in which this relationship can be studied is in Physical Activity Counselling (PAC), which is an MI-based intervention that has been found to enhance motivation towards physical activity (PA) and PA behaviour, as well as reduce depressive symptoms. However, no hypothesized link has ever been made between MI and SC and no research has been done on the impact of MI-based PAC onto SC or has investigated SC’s relationship with PA within PAC. Purpose: Article 1: To explore the link between MI and SC. Article 2: To test this proposed association by investigating the impact of a MI-based intervention, specifically through PAC, over time on (1) self-compassion and its subcomponents, and (2) PA and its intensities. A third and fourth purpose were to (3) examine whether any improvements in SC or PA variables were continued at 1-month follow-up and lastly, (4) study the relationships between SC and PA variables over time in university students and employees receiving PAC. Methods: Article 1: This article was a commentary paper that rationalized the hypothesized link between MI and SC. Article 2: This article reports results from a study which used a repeated-measures experimental study design, whereby forty university students and employees filled out online validated self-report questionnaires assessing SC and PA before (baseline), immediately after (endpoint), and 1-month after (follow-up) receiving individualized PAC sessions. Participants reached out to PAC mostly on their own or were referred by other programs on campus. Fidelity checks showed that PAC counsellors were accepting and compassionate. Results: Article 1: A hypothesized link was made between MI and SC, such that the accepting and compassionate spirit of MI, as well as certain content-based techniques used within could help to foster a self-compassionate mindset within the receivers of MI. Article 2: Paired-samples t-tests and multivariate analysis of variance tests revealed that there were significant moderate-to-large increases in total SC, self-kindness, and total, moderate, and strenuous PA from baseline to endpoint. There was also a significant large effect for decreases in self-judgement and isolation from baseline to endpoint. All changes appeared to be continued at 1-month follow-up. Lastly, results revealed that common humanity at baseline positively influenced moderate PA at endpoint. Conclusion: This provides a strong case for the link between MI and SC and provides preliminary evidence to support the positive impact of MI, specifically through PAC, onto SC and PA variables, as well as their relationship over time. Future research is recommended in order to ascertain these findings and practitioners are encouraged to show high acceptance and compassion while assisting individuals with PA behaviour change.

<div> <p>Research and clinical interest in self-compassion has grown due to its positive links with a variety of physical and psychological health outcomes. This burgeoning interest calls for measures of self-compassion that are theoretically supported and empirically validated. The purpose of this project was to (1) develop a new self-compassion measure, the Self-compassion Inventory (SCI), and (2) test its psychometric properties. To obtain feedback on potential SCI items, a cognitive interviewing study was completed with cancer patients (<i>n</i> = 10). Qualitative findings suggested that, in most cases, items were easily understood and participants’ reasoning for their responses aligned with the intention of each item. After altering certain items based on participant feedback, the scale was then tested with a group of adults with breast, gastrointestinal, lung, and prostate cancer (<i>n</i> = 404). Confirmatory factor analyses suggested a unidimensional structure and internal consistency reliability was excellent. Construct validity of the measure was established through correlations with other psychological variables hypothesized to be related to self-compassion. Evidence of the incremental validity of the SCI relative to the Self-Compassion Scale Short-Form (SCS-SF) also was obtained. For example, the SCI showed smaller correlations with negative psychological variables (e.g., depressive symptoms, anxiety) than the SCS-SF. In supplemental analyses, a 5-item version of the measure, the Brief Self-compassion Inventory (BSCI) was tested and found to have a unidimensional structure, excellent internal consistency, and evidence of validity. Furthermore, measurement invariance testing of the BSCI indicated that the measure could be used across populations of varying genders, cancer types, and stages of illness. Through robust testing, the SCI and BSCI were determined to be psychometrically sound and can be used in both clinical and research settings.<b></b></p> </div> <b><br></b>

Health care professionals are at higher risk for work-related stress, burnout and compassion fatigue than other professionals. One coping strategy that has attracted considerable attention is the practice of self-compassion. Self-compassion training is associated with psychological benefits such as decreased self-criticism and rumination and increased connectedness, mindfulness, and life satisfaction. (Smeets et al., 2014). While there is preliminary evidence that online self-compassion training is as effective as in-person training (Finlay-Jones et al., 2016), length and duration of online programs may affect adherence. Accordingly, this study assessed the feasibility of a short, 4-week online self-compassion program tailored for students in health care professions. Since this was an exploratory study, there was no control group. A convenience sample of 31 students who were registered in health care profession programs at the University of Ottawa and other Canadian universities were recruited. Key feasibility indicators included ease of recruitment, retention, completion of outcome measures, and acceptability of the program (adherence, satisfaction, ease of use). The study also obtained preliminary data on the effects of the intervention on levels of self-compassion, mindfulness, depression, anxiety and stress. Recruitment was easier than expected, with 31 participants enrolled in the study within a 2-month period. Of these, 21 started the self-compassion training. Adherence to the daily self-compassion meditations was poor, with only four participants meditating at least 50% of the expected number of days. Participants rated the self-compassion meditations as easy to follow and satisfaction ratings were acceptable for three of the four meditations. However, only two of the meditations were perceived to be relevant to healthcare professions. Intent-to-treat analyses revealed that the mindfulness facet Nonjudge and levels of stress improved from pre-to- post study. Separate analyses on program starters revealed that the mindfulness facets Describe, Nonjudge, and Act with Awareness, and levels of stress and anxiety improved. However, it is unlikely that these changes were attributed to the meditation practice given the poor rate of adherence. Overall, results suggest that this brief online self-compassion meditation training may not be feasible for healthcare trainees at this time without certain modifications to the program.

Sexual abuse is a traumatic event, which leaves survivors with mental, physical and emotional needs. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore whether closed group music therapy sessions could enhance self-compassion, as reported and expressed by sexual abuse survivors. The music therapy process that was conducted was designed to facilitate the three core constructs of self-compassion as researched by Kirsten Neff (2003a), namely self-kindness, common humanity and mindfulness. The study explored the experiences of six sexual abuse survivors residing at a community centre in Lavender Hill, Cape Town, South Africa. Music therapy sessions took place once a week for a period of six weeks and the main musical components of the sessions included song-writing, group singing, drumming, vocal and instrumental improvisations and relaxation. The findings emerged from the interpretive phenomenological analysis of the individual semi-structured interview transcripts and thick descriptions of excerpts of the audio recordings. From the findings of this study it was concluded that the group music therapy sessions offered sexual abuse survivors opportunities for: self-exploration, self-confidence, interpersonal connections, the experience of being supported, encouragement, enjoyment and vitality, stress relief, emotional exploration and expression, and transformation of perspectives. These findings were represented by the following three main themes; characteristics of their lifeworlds, the affordances of music therapy for the group, and the group’s experience of transformation, which are then discussed in relation to self-compassion. / Dissertation (MMus)--University of Pretoria, 2018. / Music / MMus / Unrestricted

We conducted 3 studies examining the efficacy of web-based self-compassionate journaling (SCJ). The goal was to compare the effects of guided and self-administered journaling on selfreported follow-up self-compassion scores and participant perceptions of the induction. In Study 1 participants were randomly assigned to an online SCJ exercise, online narrative journaling control group, or attention control (AC) group, with groups completing tasks for 4 weeks. In Study 2 participants self-selected into either online or in-lab conditions to complete a single-time SCJ exercise. Study 3 was a replication of Study 2, with participants being randomly assigned to conditions. There were no differences in self-compassion between groups in Study 1. However, there was a small but significant overall increase in self-compassion among participants from baseline to follow-up. There were self-compassion differences between online and in-lab groups in Study 2 (with a small effect size). However, these differences were not maintained when the covariate of baseline trait self-compassion was removed from analyses. Study 3 failed to replicate significant findings from Study 2 in all but one variable: whether participants completing the induction alone found the task more difficult to complete. In general, SCJ may not be an adequate way to increase self-compassion regardless of whether it is learned online or in a laboratory setting. Furthermore, those who learn SCJ alone online report difficulty in completing the induction.