Self–regulation is a psychological skill that helps individuals to flexibly plan, execute and monitor their own behaviour. The key self–regulation processes include goal establishment, planning, the striving towards a goal and the revision thereof. Although it is clear that poor self–regulation is associated with psychopathology, the role gender plays is not well understood. Some differences between men and women suggest that gender may be a possible factor in self–regulation and the development of specific forms of psychopathology. The aim of this study was therefore to determine the relationship between self–regulation, psychopathology and gender amongst a group of university students. Participants consisted of an availability sample of 384 (284 female and 100 male) students at the NWU’s Potchefstroom Campus. Self–Regulation was measured with the Shortened Self–Regulation Questionnaire (SSRQ) of Carey, Neal and Collins (2004). In this study, the factor structure proposed by Potgieter and Botha (2009), based on a factor analysis of the SSRQ in the South–African context, was used. Psychopathology was measured with the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) of Goldberg and Hiller (1979) as well as with a selfcompiled Alcohol and Eating Risk Questionnaire (AERQ). Data were captured and analysed using SAS. The two gender groups did not differ clearly regarding either self–regulation or psychopathology. This supports other studies that found no gender differences in specific selfregulation contexts, but contradicts a number of studies which indicate gender differences related to psychopathology. Interesting tendencies were noted regarding the association between self–regulation and psychopathology, independently for male and female students. Decision making and learning from mistakes, was found to be an important self–regulatory skill for both gender groups in this study, but with practical significance for male students only. For male students, differences in self–regulation were found regarding lower and higher risk for alcohol–related problems in contrast to female students, where differences were found only regarding risk for eating–related problems. It is more acceptable for males to misuse alcohol than it is for females in many societies, and this might explain why self–regulation is important for men regarding alcohol use. Current cultural values, attitudes, and practices and social norms, with particular emphasis on the sexualisation and objectification of women and their bodies, contribute to eating disorders and body image distress in females across their life span and specifically in college women. Thus, self–regulation becomes more important for females, as they are more vulnerable to eating–related problems. It was concluded that there is an important relationship between self–regulation and psychopathology, and in this study this relationship was found to be somehow different for male and female students. The results of this study have great implications both for further research and for clinical practice. / Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Self–regulation is a psychological skill that helps individuals to flexibly plan, execute and monitor their own behaviour. The key self–regulation processes include goal establishment, planning, the striving towards a goal and the revision thereof. Although it is clear that poor self–regulation is associated with psychopathology, the role gender plays is not well understood. Some differences between men and women suggest that gender may be a possible factor in self–regulation and the development of specific forms of psychopathology. The aim of this study was therefore to determine the relationship between self–regulation, psychopathology and gender amongst a group of university students. Participants consisted of an availability sample of 384 (284 female and 100 male) students at the NWU’s Potchefstroom Campus. Self–Regulation was measured with the Shortened Self–Regulation Questionnaire (SSRQ) of Carey, Neal and Collins (2004). In this study, the factor structure proposed by Potgieter and Botha (2009), based on a factor analysis of the SSRQ in the South–African context, was used. Psychopathology was measured with the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) of Goldberg and Hiller (1979) as well as with a selfcompiled Alcohol and Eating Risk Questionnaire (AERQ). Data were captured and analysed using SAS. The two gender groups did not differ clearly regarding either self–regulation or psychopathology. This supports other studies that found no gender differences in specific selfregulation contexts, but contradicts a number of studies which indicate gender differences related to psychopathology. Interesting tendencies were noted regarding the association between self–regulation and psychopathology, independently for male and female students. Decision making and learning from mistakes, was found to be an important self–regulatory skill for both gender groups in this study, but with practical significance for male students only. For male students, differences in self–regulation were found regarding lower and higher risk for alcohol–related problems in contrast to female students, where differences were found only regarding risk for eating–related problems. It is more acceptable for males to misuse alcohol than it is for females in many societies, and this might explain why self–regulation is important for men regarding alcohol use. Current cultural values, attitudes, and practices and social norms, with particular emphasis on the sexualisation and objectification of women and their bodies, contribute to eating disorders and body image distress in females across their life span and specifically in college women. Thus, self–regulation becomes more important for females, as they are more vulnerable to eating–related problems. It was concluded that there is an important relationship between self–regulation and psychopathology, and in this study this relationship was found to be somehow different for male and female students. The results of this study have great implications both for further research and for clinical practice. / Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

The teaching profession is widely regarded as being very stressful (Klassen, Usher & Bong, 2010; Otero, Castro, Santiago & Villardefrancosl, 2010). South African teachers, especially Black teachers working in previously disadvantaged areas, have to cope with serious stressors such as overcrowded classrooms and limited resources on a daily basis (Ngidi & Sibaya, 2002; Moloi, 2010). Occupational stress of this nature is known to have significant negative implications for well-being, and chronic stress has been linked to mood and anxiety disorders, and other forms of psychopathology (Bellingrath, Weigl & Kudielka, 2009; Brock & Buckley, 2012; Mundai, 2010). However, psychological buffers could enable individuals to sustain normal development and even experience well-being, despite the presence of long-term stress (Friborg, Hjemdal, Rosenvinge & Martinussen, 2003; Ryff & Singer, 2003). Noted among these so-called protective factors, the process of self-regulation has been found to be predictive of positive outcomes with regard to physiological and psychological well-being (Hofer, Busch & Kärtner, 2011; Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Self-regulation has, however, been found to represent a resource susceptible to depletion with repeated use, and there have been contradictory reports regarding the long-term sustainability of self-regulation capacity (Converse & DeShon, 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2008). No longitudinal studies could be found that explore the natural progression of self-regulation in a highly stressful context, and how changes in self-regulation are associated with changes in stress and well-being levels. This thesis consists of three sub-studies that are reported in three manuscripts. In the first of these sub-studies the levels of occupational stress and mental well-being in a cohort of Black South African teachers were investigated, including how these two variables are related to each other. The second sub-study aimed firstly to investigate the association between self-regulation and Black South African teachers’ self-reported levels of mental well-being. Secondly, it aimed to determine the role of the sub-constructs of the self-regulation process in the teachers’ selfreported levels of mental well-being. The aim of the third article was also two-fold. It first aimed to determine the natural progression of self-regulation within a highly stressful work context over a period of three years. It then aimed to determine how long-term changes in the selfregulation of individuals finding themselves in high-stress working conditions are associated with changes in their self-reported levels of stress and mental well-being. Black South African teachers (N=200, 101 men, 99 women) of ages ranging from 25 to 65 years from the North-West province of South Africa participated in the baseline phase of the SABPA project in 2008. Of the original 200 participants, a total of 173 teachers (88 men, 85 women) took part in data collection for the follow-up study in 2011. Data were collected by making use of quantitative measures (Teacher Stress Inventory (Boyle, Borg, Falzon & Baglion, 1995); General Health Questionnaire-28 (Goldberg & Hillier, 1979); Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (Keyes, 2006); Short Self-Regulation Questionnaire (Carey, Neal & Collins, 2004)) that have been validated for use in the South African context. The findings indicate that this group of teachers experienced high levels of stress, and symptoms indicative of mental illness to an extent that warrants psychiatric intervention. However, participants also reported higher than expected levels of mental health. The findings further indicated that self-regulation contributed positively to the participants’ mental health levels. The longitudinal findings also indicated improvements in this group of teachers’ selfregulation levels over time, and that these long-term changes in self-regulation were positively associated with changes in participants’ mental health. Recommendations for future investigations on the role of self-regulation in well-being that flowed from this research include extending research to other cultural groups and general populations; use of multiple or mixedmethod approaches to provide more insight into the participants’ short- and long-term experience of their working environment, their levels of stress and well-being and their self-regulation levels; investigating the psychological perspective on stress and exploring the concept of optimal self-regulation and the maintenance thereof. The study provided a holistic insight into the importance of self-regulation as protective factor in a highly stressed context, especially with regards to the promotion of mental well-being on a short term and long term basis. / PhD (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The teaching profession is widely regarded as being very stressful (Klassen, Usher & Bong, 2010; Otero, Castro, Santiago & Villardefrancosl, 2010). South African teachers, especially Black teachers working in previously disadvantaged areas, have to cope with serious stressors such as overcrowded classrooms and limited resources on a daily basis (Ngidi & Sibaya, 2002; Moloi, 2010). Occupational stress of this nature is known to have significant negative implications for well-being, and chronic stress has been linked to mood and anxiety disorders, and other forms of psychopathology (Bellingrath, Weigl & Kudielka, 2009; Brock & Buckley, 2012; Mundai, 2010). However, psychological buffers could enable individuals to sustain normal development and even experience well-being, despite the presence of long-term stress (Friborg, Hjemdal, Rosenvinge & Martinussen, 2003; Ryff & Singer, 2003). Noted among these so-called protective factors, the process of self-regulation has been found to be predictive of positive outcomes with regard to physiological and psychological well-being (Hofer, Busch & Kärtner, 2011; Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Self-regulation has, however, been found to represent a resource susceptible to depletion with repeated use, and there have been contradictory reports regarding the long-term sustainability of self-regulation capacity (Converse & DeShon, 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2008). No longitudinal studies could be found that explore the natural progression of self-regulation in a highly stressful context, and how changes in self-regulation are associated with changes in stress and well-being levels. This thesis consists of three sub-studies that are reported in three manuscripts. In the first of these sub-studies the levels of occupational stress and mental well-being in a cohort of Black South African teachers were investigated, including how these two variables are related to each other. The second sub-study aimed firstly to investigate the association between self-regulation and Black South African teachers’ self-reported levels of mental well-being. Secondly, it aimed to determine the role of the sub-constructs of the self-regulation process in the teachers’ selfreported levels of mental well-being. The aim of the third article was also two-fold. It first aimed to determine the natural progression of self-regulation within a highly stressful work context over a period of three years. It then aimed to determine how long-term changes in the selfregulation of individuals finding themselves in high-stress working conditions are associated with changes in their self-reported levels of stress and mental well-being. Black South African teachers (N=200, 101 men, 99 women) of ages ranging from 25 to 65 years from the North-West province of South Africa participated in the baseline phase of the SABPA project in 2008. Of the original 200 participants, a total of 173 teachers (88 men, 85 women) took part in data collection for the follow-up study in 2011. Data were collected by making use of quantitative measures (Teacher Stress Inventory (Boyle, Borg, Falzon & Baglion, 1995); General Health Questionnaire-28 (Goldberg & Hillier, 1979); Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (Keyes, 2006); Short Self-Regulation Questionnaire (Carey, Neal & Collins, 2004)) that have been validated for use in the South African context. The findings indicate that this group of teachers experienced high levels of stress, and symptoms indicative of mental illness to an extent that warrants psychiatric intervention. However, participants also reported higher than expected levels of mental health. The findings further indicated that self-regulation contributed positively to the participants’ mental health levels. The longitudinal findings also indicated improvements in this group of teachers’ selfregulation levels over time, and that these long-term changes in self-regulation were positively associated with changes in participants’ mental health. Recommendations for future investigations on the role of self-regulation in well-being that flowed from this research include extending research to other cultural groups and general populations; use of multiple or mixedmethod approaches to provide more insight into the participants’ short- and long-term experience of their working environment, their levels of stress and well-being and their self-regulation levels; investigating the psychological perspective on stress and exploring the concept of optimal self-regulation and the maintenance thereof. The study provided a holistic insight into the importance of self-regulation as protective factor in a highly stressed context, especially with regards to the promotion of mental well-being on a short term and long term basis. / PhD (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

This study focuses on the use of a bridging technique to overcome contact–making barriers in adolescents. Contact is regarded as an integral part of all human experiences, but barriers (also called contact boundary disturbances) often hinder effective contact–making with the environment. To overcome contact boundary disturbances, several model bridges were constructed prior to the study and these were used as a metaphor during the intervention phase with adolescents. The goal of the research was to determine whether a technique called “bridging” could overcome contact boundary disturbances in adolescents in therapy. The research was conducted from an existential–phenomenological Gestalt approach. Combined quantitative and qualitative approaches were followed and a single system experimental design, A–B–A–A, was applied. A total of 14 adolescent participants between the ages of 11 and 14 were purposefully selected from three different schools in the Gauteng Province, South Africa, as well as their parents and teachers. Quantitative data were collected from the pre–intervention assessment, the post–intervention assessment and a follow–up assessment where questionnaires were completed by the researcher for each of the adolescent participants. The follow–up assessment was done four weeks after the postassessment in order to determine the consistency of the intervention. These questionnaires were analysed according to the semantic differential scale, and raw scores were plotted on line and bar graphs in order to assess the contact skills and contact boundary disturbances in the participating adolescents. Qualitative data were collected through semi–structured interviews with parents and teachers and through therapeutic interventions with adolescents. The data were analysed using the Creswell spiral and the a priori and inductive coding approaches. Three main themes were identified which were contact boundary disturbances, personal emotional factors and behavioural factors. Quantitative and qualitative data results and findings were discussed in context, to the relevant literature. The findings of the data indicated that the bridging technique can be useful in working with adolescents in therapy to overcome contact–making barriers. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

This study focuses on the use of a bridging technique to overcome contact–making barriers in adolescents. Contact is regarded as an integral part of all human experiences, but barriers (also called contact boundary disturbances) often hinder effective contact–making with the environment. To overcome contact boundary disturbances, several model bridges were constructed prior to the study and these were used as a metaphor during the intervention phase with adolescents. The goal of the research was to determine whether a technique called “bridging” could overcome contact boundary disturbances in adolescents in therapy. The research was conducted from an existential–phenomenological Gestalt approach. Combined quantitative and qualitative approaches were followed and a single system experimental design, A–B–A–A, was applied. A total of 14 adolescent participants between the ages of 11 and 14 were purposefully selected from three different schools in the Gauteng Province, South Africa, as well as their parents and teachers. Quantitative data were collected from the pre–intervention assessment, the post–intervention assessment and a follow–up assessment where questionnaires were completed by the researcher for each of the adolescent participants. The follow–up assessment was done four weeks after the postassessment in order to determine the consistency of the intervention. These questionnaires were analysed according to the semantic differential scale, and raw scores were plotted on line and bar graphs in order to assess the contact skills and contact boundary disturbances in the participating adolescents. Qualitative data were collected through semi–structured interviews with parents and teachers and through therapeutic interventions with adolescents. The data were analysed using the Creswell spiral and the a priori and inductive coding approaches. Three main themes were identified which were contact boundary disturbances, personal emotional factors and behavioural factors. Quantitative and qualitative data results and findings were discussed in context, to the relevant literature. The findings of the data indicated that the bridging technique can be useful in working with adolescents in therapy to overcome contact–making barriers. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The general aim for this research was to explore and describe the risk and protective variables in the bio–psychosocial field of adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis (CF) and to describe how these variables impact multi–dimensionally on such adolescents. From the literature search it seemed as if interventions regarding CF focus mainly on the medical condition. No literature could be found on the experiences of adolescents with CF. It is clear that there is a dearth of research on adolescents with CF in general but also specifically on the bio–psychosocial impact of this illness on adolescents in this challenging time of maturing. The research design was a case study and focused on exploration and description of risk and protective factors in the bio–psychosocial fields of adolescents with CF. Semi–structured interviews were used as a data collecting method. Questions were open–ended, but focused on the experience of adolescents having CF. Thematic analysis was used for data analysis based on the following steps, which entailed among others transcribing data, reading, re–reading, translation, coding, identifying and describing themes. Facing a chronic illness and the intensive medical treatment required is a harsh reality that influences the entire field of adolescents with CF. This research results expanded knowledge of CF in adolescents within a Gestalt field perspective. Themes identified outline risk and protective factors related to faith, daily routines and especially the effect of medical procedures on time management, emotions, health and body–related aspects, frequent hospitalisation, social support and future concerns. If the risk and protective variables in the field of adolescents with CF is better understood from their own perspective, it is assumed that trans–disciplinary interventions with a multi–dimensional focus will be targeted more accurately in intervention strategies for this vulnerable group. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The general aim for this research was to explore and describe the risk and protective variables in the bio–psychosocial field of adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis (CF) and to describe how these variables impact multi–dimensionally on such adolescents. From the literature search it seemed as if interventions regarding CF focus mainly on the medical condition. No literature could be found on the experiences of adolescents with CF. It is clear that there is a dearth of research on adolescents with CF in general but also specifically on the bio–psychosocial impact of this illness on adolescents in this challenging time of maturing. The research design was a case study and focused on exploration and description of risk and protective factors in the bio–psychosocial fields of adolescents with CF. Semi–structured interviews were used as a data collecting method. Questions were open–ended, but focused on the experience of adolescents having CF. Thematic analysis was used for data analysis based on the following steps, which entailed among others transcribing data, reading, re–reading, translation, coding, identifying and describing themes. Facing a chronic illness and the intensive medical treatment required is a harsh reality that influences the entire field of adolescents with CF. This research results expanded knowledge of CF in adolescents within a Gestalt field perspective. Themes identified outline risk and protective factors related to faith, daily routines and especially the effect of medical procedures on time management, emotions, health and body–related aspects, frequent hospitalisation, social support and future concerns. If the risk and protective variables in the field of adolescents with CF is better understood from their own perspective, it is assumed that trans–disciplinary interventions with a multi–dimensional focus will be targeted more accurately in intervention strategies for this vulnerable group. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The number of students that apply for studies at South African universities has increased dramatically over the past years, but the resources of the universities have stayed the same. It is therefore imperative that academic performance can be predicted on a short- and long-term basis. The Developing Expertise model might be able to predict academic performance on a short- and long-term basis. This study focussed primarily on academic performance on short-term basis by focussing on three of the model’s elements. The three elements that were investigated were: metacognition, intrinsic motivation and critical thinking. One of the contributions of this study is the refinement of some of the elements of the expertise model. The study helped to determine the validity of the instrument in a South African context. The measurement instrument can also be used as a selection meganism on short-term basis. In order to measure each of the elements of the expertise model, a measuring tool consisting of five questionnaires was compiled. A convenience sample of first year psychology students provided 326 students for the study. A second sample, compiled from the original sample, consisting of 209 first year students was used for the multiple regression analyses. These students are registered for psychology for the first time in 2005. The students were placed in three groups according to the student’s means of registering for the CBT centre. The first group was those students who completed the instrument on computers. The second group consisted of those students who completed a paper and pencil version of the measurement. The third group consisted of the Mamelodi students. These students completed a paper and pencil version of the measurement and brought it back a week later. The statistical analysis included factor analysis, correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis. Based on the literature research and the results of the statistical analysis, the expertise model was expanded to include metamemory as the functional unit for metacognition. Motivation can be divided in three subcomponents, namely: self-efficacy, intrinsic value and test anxiety. The motivational component, knowledge of cognition and external control can be used as predictors of academic performance on a short-term basis. The findings of this study can only be used as a selection meganism of academic performance on a short-term basis and therefore the results must be used with caution. / Dissertation (MA (Psychology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Psychology / unrestricted