<p>The built environment usually constitutes a very importantpart of the real capital of a nation and the constructionsector represents more than 10% of the yearly Gross NationalProduct of the industrialised world. The importance of goodplanning of all construction, where the service life of thework is considered, is of great interest and an importantaspect in sustainability considerations. The need for increasedknowledge about degradation of materials, for structuredmethodology, and for working tools for those involved in theplanning process, has resulted in an extensive effort inpre-normative research and standardisation regarding thisfield.</p><p>This thesis presents a discussion on service life planningand the role of the Factor Method in such a work, andespecially, discussion of modification and development of themethodology. In the design process, the need to evaluate theservice life of products is great, and this is a formidableproblem to solve, as the results will depend on both materialproperties and the environment in which the material is placedor used. A practical solution has to be based on a goodknowledge in the field, but also on a sound working strategy,to ensure that different design scenarios can be compared in astandardised or structured way. The Factor Method is apromising working tool for such an evaluation and comparison,but is as such, still more of a methodology, than a method.Examples of the use of the methodology are still very limitedand the method as such, is much discussed by researchers.However, its future will depend on how practical it will be toapply in use. The method is useful to estimate the service lifeof products, based on a known reference service life and anumber of modifying factors that will depend on the conditiondifferences between the specific project and the referencein-use conditions. The required precision of such a methodologyis discussed, especially in the light of inherent distributionin material properties and the fact that often the consequencesof failure are very limited. In such cases, the standardisedFactor Method is considered to be of great use and should giveparties involved a good means for working in a structured andsystematic way.</p>

<p>The built environment usually constitutes a very important part of the real capital of a nation, and the construction sector represents more than 10% of the yearly Gross National Product of the industrialised world. Good planning of all construction is important, and consideration of the service life of the work is of great interest and is a significant aspect of sustainability considerations. The need for more knowledge about degradation of materials, for structured methodology, and for working tools for those involved in the planning process, has resulted in an extensive effort in pre-normative research and standardisation regarding this field.</p><p>This thesis presents a discussion on service life planning and the role of the Factor Method in such work, and especially, discussion of modification and development of the methodology. In the design process, the need to evaluate the service life of products is a great challenge, as the results will depend on both material properties and the environment in which the material is placed or used. A practical solution has to be based on a good knowledge in the field, but also on a sound working strategy, to ensure that different design scenarios can be compared in a standardised or structured way. The Factor Method is a promising working tool for such an evaluation and comparison, but is as such, still more of a methodology, than a method. Examples of the use of the methodology are still very limited, and the method as such, is much discussed by researchers. However, its future will depend upon how practical it will be to apply in use. The method is useful to estimate the service life of products, based on a known reference service life and a number of modifying factors. These factors in turn depend on the conditional differences between the specific project and the reference, in-use conditions. This thesis discusses the required precision of such a methodology, especially in light of inherent distributions in material properties, and the fact that the consequences of failure are often very limited. In such cases, the standardised Factor Method is considered to be quite useful, and should give the parties involved a good means for working in a structured and systematic way. </p>

É crescente a preocupação mundial com a durabilidade e o atendimento da vida útil de projeto estabelecida pelas normativas para estruturas de concreto armado. Desta maneira, torna-se fundamental a utilização de modelos representativos dos processos de degradação para uma correta previsão da vida útil deste tipo de estrutura. Isto posto, esta pesquisa teve como objetivo a validação, com base em dados de exposição natural, do modelo para a previsão da vida útil de estruturas de concreto armado proposto por Andrade (2001). Para esta validação foram coletados dados na literatura referentes à penetração de cloretos em estruturas de concreto e foram obtidos dados experimentais da concentração de cloretos em prismas de concreto e argamassa moldados com cimento CP II – F, CP III, CP IV e CP V – ARI, com relações a/c de 0,45, 0,55 e 0,65, expostos por um período de 3, 2 e 1 ano, respectivamente, em ambiente protegido e desprotegido da chuva em zona de atmosfera marinha, na cidade de Vitória. Também foram avaliados os perfis de cloretos de blocos de concreto moldados com cimento CP IV, CP V, CP V + 5% SA e CP V + 10% SA e relações a/c de 0,45, 0,55 e 0,65, que permaneceram expostos por 9 anos na cidade de Tramandaí. Paralelamente, foram avaliadas a influência do tipo de cimento, da relação a/c, da condição de exposição (protegido e desprotegido da chuva) e da adição de sílica ativa na penetração de cloretos em matrizes cimentícias, bem como a diferença desta penetração em concretos e argamassas moldados com os mesmos materiais e relações a/c. Para isto foram retiradas, dos prismas e blocos de concreto e argamassa, amostras sob a forma pulverulenta, para posterior determinação da concentração de cloretos utilizando o equipamento CL - 2000 da NDT James Instruments. Os resultados obtidos indicaram que o tipo de cimento que determinou maiores concentrações de cloretos foi o CP III; que prismas de concreto tendem a apresentar concentrações superiores aos de argamassa, em função da existência da zona de transição entre a pasta e o agregado graúdo. No tocante à corrosão de armaduras desencadeada por cloretos, o ambiente desprotegido mostrou-se mais danoso; a utilização de teores de sílica ativa em percentuais de 5 e 10% é eficiente na redução do ingresso de cloretos; baixas relações a/c apresentaram concentrações superficiais mais elevadas, em contrapartida, a medida que a profundidade em relação à superfície do concreto aumenta, há uma redução nestes teores. Por fim, em relação à validação do modelo de Andrade (2001) constatou-se que, para os dados com pequenos tempos de exposição, o modelo apresentou níveis de resposta similares à penetração de cloretos in situ, com bons resultados dentro de um faixa de variação de 35%, associados a diferenças máximas de apenas 4,6 mm entre os valores observados e calculados. Para os dados com tempos de exposição superiores, as diferenças foram expressivas, indicando a necessidade de um ajuste no sentido de melhor descrever o crescimento da concentração superficial ao longo do tempo. / International concern about durability and service life design established by regulations is growing. Therefore, the use of representative models of degradation processes for a correct prediction of service life of reinforced concrete structures become fundamental. Moreover, this research aimed to validate, based on natural exposure data, the model for the prediction of service life of reinforced concrete structures proposed by Andrade (2001). For this validation, data were collected in the literature regarding the chloride penetration in concrete structures and experimental data were obtained in concrete and mortar prisms molded with cement CP II – F, CP III, CP IV and CP V, with w/b ratios of 0,45, 0,55 and 0,65, exposed for a period of 3, 2 and 1 year, respectively, in a rainfall protected and unprotected environment in a marine atmosphere zone, in the city of Vitória. The profiles of concrete blocks molded with cement CP IV, CP V, CP V + 5% SA and CP V + 10% SA, and w/b ratios of 0,45, 0,55 and 0,65, who remained exposed for 9 years in the city of Tramandaí, were also evaluated. At the same time, were evaluated the influence: of the cement type, the w/b ratio, the exposure condition (protected and unprotected from rainfall) and the addition of silica fume in chloride penetration in cementitious matrixes, as well as the difference of this penetration in concretes and mortars molded with the same materials and w/b ratios. For this purpose, pulverulent samples were removed from the prisms and blocks of concrete and mortar for further determination of chloride concentration using the CL – 2000 equipment of the NDT James Instruments. The results indicated the type of cement with highest chloride concentrations was CP III; that concrete prisms tend to have higher concentration than mortar, due to the exist of the transition zone between the past and the coarse aggregate; with regard to corrosion triggered by chlorides the unprotected environment is more damaging; the use of silica fume in percentages of 5 and 10% is efficient to reduce the chloride ingress; low w/b ratios showed higher surface concentration, in contrast, as the depth in relation to the concrete surface increases, there is a reduction in theses contents. Finally, in relation to the validation of Andrade´s model (2001), it was found that, for data with small exposure times, the model showed similar response levels to chloride penetration in situ, with good results within a range of variation of 35%, associated with maximum differences of only 4,6 mm between the observed and calculated values. For the data with longer exposure times, the differences were expressive, indicating the need for an adjustment in order to best describe the growth of the surface concentration over time.

QC 20100930

The built environment usually constitutes a very important part of the real capital of a nation, and the construction sector represents more than 10% of the yearly Gross National Product of the industrialised world. Good planning of all construction is important, and consideration of the service life of the work is of great interest and is a significant aspect of sustainability considerations. The need for more knowledge about degradation of materials, for structured methodology, and for working tools for those involved in the planning process, has resulted in an extensive effort in pre-normative research and standardisation regarding this field. This thesis presents a discussion on service life planning and the role of the Factor Method in such work, and especially, discussion of modification and development of the methodology. In the design process, the need to evaluate the service life of products is a great challenge, as the results will depend on both material properties and the environment in which the material is placed or used. A practical solution has to be based on a good knowledge in the field, but also on a sound working strategy, to ensure that different design scenarios can be compared in a standardised or structured way. The Factor Method is a promising working tool for such an evaluation and comparison, but is as such, still more of a methodology, than a method. Examples of the use of the methodology are still very limited, and the method as such, is much discussed by researchers. However, its future will depend upon how practical it will be to apply in use. The method is useful to estimate the service life of products, based on a known reference service life and a number of modifying factors. These factors in turn depend on the conditional differences between the specific project and the reference, in-use conditions. This thesis discusses the required precision of such a methodology, especially in light of inherent distributions in material properties, and the fact that the consequences of failure are often very limited. In such cases, the standardised Factor Method is considered to be quite useful, and should give the parties involved a good means for working in a structured and systematic way. / QC 20101019

Devido à preocupação com a durabilidade das estruturas de concreto armado surgiram novas linhas de pesquisa destacando-se, dentre elas, a previsão de vida útil. Estes estudos deram origem a diversos modelos que tentam estabelecer o comportamento do concreto quando exposto a ambientes agressivos durante um determinado período. Existem várias maneiras de se modelar este comportamento: com base em resultados obtidos em experiências anteriores; a partir de ensaios de degradação acelerados; por métodos determinísticos e probabilísticos ou estocásticos. A estimativa de vida útil das estruturas de concreto empregando dados de ensaios acelerados é recomendada pela ASTM E-632 (1996) desde que estes sejam correlacionados com resultados de ensaios não acelerados ou naturais. A correlação entre estes ensaios possibilita a determinação dos coeficientes de aceleração, os quais expressam o número de vezes em que o ensaio acelerado representa o fenômeno de degradação natural. Dentro deste contexto o presente trabalho avalia a carbonatação do concreto com e sem adição de sílica ativa exposto a degradação natural e acelerada, verificando também a influência do teor desta adição e da relação água/aglomerante na carbonatação. Em paralelo foram determinados os coeficientes de carbonatação (kc) e de aceleração (αa). Os concretos estudados possuem relação água/aglomerante de 0,30; 0,35; 0,45; 0,60 e 0,80 e teor de adição de 0; 5; 10; 15e 20%. A carbonatação natural das amostras foi avaliada após 7 anos de exposição ao CO2, tendo como ambiente de degradação a cidade de Porto Alegre, RS. Os dados de carbonatação acelerada foram obtidos aos 7, 28, 63 e 98 dias de exposição ao CO2 com concentração de 5%, temperatura de 25°C e umidade relativa (UR) de 70%. Para o ensaio acelerado, baseado em análise estatística por meio de regressão múltipla não-linear, os resultados apontaram que a adição de sílica ativa em dosagens com relação água/aglomerante elevada aumenta a profundidade de carbonatação do concreto. Para a relação água/aglomerante de 0,80 com 0 e 20% de adição de sílica ativa, os coeficientes de aceleração obtidos foram de 31,15 e 35,49, respectivamente. / New researches has been appeared with the concern of reinforced concrete structures durability, standing out the service life prediction. These studies creates some models that establish the concrete performance when exposed to an aggressive environment. There are several ways to modeling this performance: with results obtained in previous tests; with accelerated degradation tests; or deterministic and stochastic methods. The concrete structures service life prediction using short term test data are recommended by ASTM E-632 (1996) since these are correlated with long term test results. The correlation among these tests makes possible the acceleration coefficient determination, which express how the accelerated tests represents the natural degradation phenomenon. In this sense, this work evaluate the concrete carbonation with and without silica fume exposed to natural and accelerated test, verifying the influence of silica fume tenor in this material and water – binder ratio in the carbonation. In addition to this, were determined the carbonation (kc) and acceleration coefficients (αa). The concretes studied has a 0,30; 0,35; 0,45; 0,60 and 0,80 water-binder ratio and 0; 5; 10; 15 and 20% addition tenor. The samples natural carbonation was analyzed after 7 years of CO2 exhibition from Porto Alegre city environment degradation. The accelerated carbonation data were obtained in 7, 28, 63 and 98 days of CO2 exhibition with 5% concentration, temperature of 20°C and humidity of 60%. In accelerated tests, based on statistical analysis through nonlinear estimation multiple regression, the results showed that the silica fume addition in high water-binder ratio mixtures increases the concrete carbonation depth. For water-binder ratio 0,80 with silica fume addition of 0 and 20%, the acceleration coefficients obtained were 31,15 and 35,49, respectively.

Devido à preocupação com a durabilidade das estruturas de concreto armado surgiram novas linhas de pesquisa destacando-se, dentre elas, a previsão de vida útil. Estes estudos deram origem a diversos modelos que tentam estabelecer o comportamento do concreto quando exposto a ambientes agressivos durante um determinado período. Existem várias maneiras de se modelar este comportamento: com base em resultados obtidos em experiências anteriores; a partir de ensaios de degradação acelerados; por métodos determinísticos e probabilísticos ou estocásticos. A estimativa de vida útil das estruturas de concreto empregando dados de ensaios acelerados é recomendada pela ASTM E-632 (1996) desde que estes sejam correlacionados com resultados de ensaios não acelerados ou naturais. A correlação entre estes ensaios possibilita a determinação dos coeficientes de aceleração, os quais expressam o número de vezes em que o ensaio acelerado representa o fenômeno de degradação natural. Dentro deste contexto o presente trabalho avalia a carbonatação do concreto com e sem adição de sílica ativa exposto a degradação natural e acelerada, verificando também a influência do teor desta adição e da relação água/aglomerante na carbonatação. Em paralelo foram determinados os coeficientes de carbonatação (kc) e de aceleração (αa). Os concretos estudados possuem relação água/aglomerante de 0,30; 0,35; 0,45; 0,60 e 0,80 e teor de adição de 0; 5; 10; 15e 20%. A carbonatação natural das amostras foi avaliada após 7 anos de exposição ao CO2, tendo como ambiente de degradação a cidade de Porto Alegre, RS. Os dados de carbonatação acelerada foram obtidos aos 7, 28, 63 e 98 dias de exposição ao CO2 com concentração de 5%, temperatura de 25°C e umidade relativa (UR) de 70%. Para o ensaio acelerado, baseado em análise estatística por meio de regressão múltipla não-linear, os resultados apontaram que a adição de sílica ativa em dosagens com relação água/aglomerante elevada aumenta a profundidade de carbonatação do concreto. Para a relação água/aglomerante de 0,80 com 0 e 20% de adição de sílica ativa, os coeficientes de aceleração obtidos foram de 31,15 e 35,49, respectivamente. / New researches has been appeared with the concern of reinforced concrete structures durability, standing out the service life prediction. These studies creates some models that establish the concrete performance when exposed to an aggressive environment. There are several ways to modeling this performance: with results obtained in previous tests; with accelerated degradation tests; or deterministic and stochastic methods. The concrete structures service life prediction using short term test data are recommended by ASTM E-632 (1996) since these are correlated with long term test results. The correlation among these tests makes possible the acceleration coefficient determination, which express how the accelerated tests represents the natural degradation phenomenon. In this sense, this work evaluate the concrete carbonation with and without silica fume exposed to natural and accelerated test, verifying the influence of silica fume tenor in this material and water – binder ratio in the carbonation. In addition to this, were determined the carbonation (kc) and acceleration coefficients (αa). The concretes studied has a 0,30; 0,35; 0,45; 0,60 and 0,80 water-binder ratio and 0; 5; 10; 15 and 20% addition tenor. The samples natural carbonation was analyzed after 7 years of CO2 exhibition from Porto Alegre city environment degradation. The accelerated carbonation data were obtained in 7, 28, 63 and 98 days of CO2 exhibition with 5% concentration, temperature of 20°C and humidity of 60%. In accelerated tests, based on statistical analysis through nonlinear estimation multiple regression, the results showed that the silica fume addition in high water-binder ratio mixtures increases the concrete carbonation depth. For water-binder ratio 0,80 with silica fume addition of 0 and 20%, the acceleration coefficients obtained were 31,15 and 35,49, respectively.

Devido à preocupação com a durabilidade das estruturas de concreto armado surgiram novas linhas de pesquisa destacando-se, dentre elas, a previsão de vida útil. Estes estudos deram origem a diversos modelos que tentam estabelecer o comportamento do concreto quando exposto a ambientes agressivos durante um determinado período. Existem várias maneiras de se modelar este comportamento: com base em resultados obtidos em experiências anteriores; a partir de ensaios de degradação acelerados; por métodos determinísticos e probabilísticos ou estocásticos. A estimativa de vida útil das estruturas de concreto empregando dados de ensaios acelerados é recomendada pela ASTM E-632 (1996) desde que estes sejam correlacionados com resultados de ensaios não acelerados ou naturais. A correlação entre estes ensaios possibilita a determinação dos coeficientes de aceleração, os quais expressam o número de vezes em que o ensaio acelerado representa o fenômeno de degradação natural. Dentro deste contexto o presente trabalho avalia a carbonatação do concreto com e sem adição de sílica ativa exposto a degradação natural e acelerada, verificando também a influência do teor desta adição e da relação água/aglomerante na carbonatação. Em paralelo foram determinados os coeficientes de carbonatação (kc) e de aceleração (αa). Os concretos estudados possuem relação água/aglomerante de 0,30; 0,35; 0,45; 0,60 e 0,80 e teor de adição de 0; 5; 10; 15e 20%. A carbonatação natural das amostras foi avaliada após 7 anos de exposição ao CO2, tendo como ambiente de degradação a cidade de Porto Alegre, RS. Os dados de carbonatação acelerada foram obtidos aos 7, 28, 63 e 98 dias de exposição ao CO2 com concentração de 5%, temperatura de 25°C e umidade relativa (UR) de 70%. Para o ensaio acelerado, baseado em análise estatística por meio de regressão múltipla não-linear, os resultados apontaram que a adição de sílica ativa em dosagens com relação água/aglomerante elevada aumenta a profundidade de carbonatação do concreto. Para a relação água/aglomerante de 0,80 com 0 e 20% de adição de sílica ativa, os coeficientes de aceleração obtidos foram de 31,15 e 35,49, respectivamente. / New researches has been appeared with the concern of reinforced concrete structures durability, standing out the service life prediction. These studies creates some models that establish the concrete performance when exposed to an aggressive environment. There are several ways to modeling this performance: with results obtained in previous tests; with accelerated degradation tests; or deterministic and stochastic methods. The concrete structures service life prediction using short term test data are recommended by ASTM E-632 (1996) since these are correlated with long term test results. The correlation among these tests makes possible the acceleration coefficient determination, which express how the accelerated tests represents the natural degradation phenomenon. In this sense, this work evaluate the concrete carbonation with and without silica fume exposed to natural and accelerated test, verifying the influence of silica fume tenor in this material and water – binder ratio in the carbonation. In addition to this, were determined the carbonation (kc) and acceleration coefficients (αa). The concretes studied has a 0,30; 0,35; 0,45; 0,60 and 0,80 water-binder ratio and 0; 5; 10; 15 and 20% addition tenor. The samples natural carbonation was analyzed after 7 years of CO2 exhibition from Porto Alegre city environment degradation. The accelerated carbonation data were obtained in 7, 28, 63 and 98 days of CO2 exhibition with 5% concentration, temperature of 20°C and humidity of 60%. In accelerated tests, based on statistical analysis through nonlinear estimation multiple regression, the results showed that the silica fume addition in high water-binder ratio mixtures increases the concrete carbonation depth. For water-binder ratio 0,80 with silica fume addition of 0 and 20%, the acceleration coefficients obtained were 31,15 and 35,49, respectively.

The global importance of and need for sustainable development demand an informed decision-making process from the built environment to ensure optimum service life, which depends on the ability to quantify changes in condition of building materials over time. The objective of this thesis is to develop a model, which translates expert knowledge and reasoning into probability values through the application of Fuzzy Logic Artificial Intelligence to supplement limited historical performance data on degradation of building materials for the development of Markov Chain transitional probability matrices to predict service life, condition changes over time, and consequences of maintenance levels on service life of buildings. The Markov Chain methodology, a stochastic approach used for simulating the transition from one condition to another over time, has been identified as the preferred method for service life prediction by a number of studies. Limited availability of historic performance data on degradation and durability of building materials, required to populate the Markovian transition probability matrices, however restricts the application of the Markov Chain methodology. The durability and degradation factors, defined as design and maintenance levels, material and workmanship quality, external and internal climate, and operational environment, similar to the factors identified in the state-of-the–art ‘Factor Method’ for service life prediction, and current condition are rated on a uniform colour-coded five-point rating system and used to develop “IF-THEN” rules based on expert knowledge and reasoning. Fuzzy logic artificial intelligence is then used to translate these rules into crisp probability values to populate the Markovian transitional probability matrices. Historic performance data from previous condition assessments of six academic hospitals are used to calibrate and test the model. There is good correlation between the transitional probability matrices developed for the proposed model and other Markov applications in concrete bridge deck deterioration and roof maintenance models, based on historic performance data collected over extended periods, which makes the correlation more significant. Proof is presented that the Markov Chain can be used to calculate the estimated service life of a building or component, quantify changes in condition over time and determine the effect of maintenance levels on service life. It is also illustrated that the limited availability of historic performance data on degradation of building materials can be supplemented with expert knowledge, translated into probability values through the application of Fuzzy Logic Artificial Intelligence, to develop transition probability matrices for the Markov Chain. The proposed model can also be used to determine the estimated loss of or gain in service life of a building or component for various levels of maintenance. / Thesis (PhD(Civil Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Civil Engineering / unrestricted

The built environment usually constitutes a very importantpart of the real capital of a nation and the constructionsector represents more than 10% of the yearly Gross NationalProduct of the industrialised world. The importance of goodplanning of all construction, where the service life of thework is considered, is of great interest and an importantaspect in sustainability considerations. The need for increasedknowledge about degradation of materials, for structuredmethodology, and for working tools for those involved in theplanning process, has resulted in an extensive effort inpre-normative research and standardisation regarding thisfield. This thesis presents a discussion on service life planningand the role of the Factor Method in such a work, andespecially, discussion of modification and development of themethodology. In the design process, the need to evaluate theservice life of products is great, and this is a formidableproblem to solve, as the results will depend on both materialproperties and the environment in which the material is placedor used. A practical solution has to be based on a goodknowledge in the field, but also on a sound working strategy,to ensure that different design scenarios can be compared in astandardised or structured way. The Factor Method is apromising working tool for such an evaluation and comparison,but is as such, still more of a methodology, than a method.Examples of the use of the methodology are still very limitedand the method as such, is much discussed by researchers.However, its future will depend on how practical it will be toapply in use. The method is useful to estimate the service lifeof products, based on a known reference service life and anumber of modifying factors that will depend on the conditiondifferences between the specific project and the referencein-use conditions. The required precision of such a methodologyis discussed, especially in the light of inherent distributionin material properties and the fact that often the consequencesof failure are very limited. In such cases, the standardisedFactor Method is considered to be of great use and should giveparties involved a good means for working in a structured andsystematic way. / NR 20140805