Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) is a societal problem whose origins date back to the times of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It is found in all levels of society, from the wealthiest to the poorest; and the short-term and long-term impacts it has on the lives of the victims, can be devastating. There are many reasons for the occurrence of child sexual abuse, but in all cases, the ultimate accountability rests on the shoulders of the sexual offender. The nature of child sexual victimisation varies from verbal suggestions to violent physical force. Irrespective of which type the child is being subjected to, as the weaker partner in the pedagogical relationship with the adult, s/he is never able to defend herself/himself. The global phenomenon, and the increase in CSA, has given rise to the research question, namely: How does child sexual abuse impact on the school life experiences and academic performance of learners at school? The purpose of this research study was to provide insight into the following issues: • The nature and identification of the symptoms of child sexual abuse; • The manner in which sexually abused children manifest their experiences of sexual abuse at school; • How sexually abused children cope with their learning tasks; and • Recommendations for educators. The literature relating to CSA was reviewed, with the aim of establishing a solid theoretical foundation for the study. CSA has been looked at holistically, encompassing the accepted definitions, the related concepts, the nature of sexual abuse, the prevalence and incidence of CSA, the possible causes, the short-term and long-term impacts, and the suggestions by adult survivors for use by educators in their efforts to help abused learners. 11 In an attempt to provide acceptable answers to the research problem, a mixed- method research design was implemented. The research study was conducted in two phases: Stage 1 consisted of an exploration of the research problem by means of the following question put to the participants: In your experience as an adult survivor of child sexual abuse how did the abuse impact on your school life experiences, including your academic performance? A total of nineteen participants from the Eastern Cape Province shared their experiences, by means of writing their life story as a narrative. Purposive and availability sampling of adult survivors was undertaken. In order to ensure the trustworthiness and authenticity of the research methodology, Guba’s model of data verification was used. Accepted ethical measures were taken into consideration and adhered to during the research. The analysed data were taken directly from the narratives that the individual participants saved onto flashdrives. Consensus by the researcher and coder was reached regarding the identification of themes, categories and subcategories. The following four significant themes emerged, based on the results of the data analysis: Theme One: Health, sexuality and the sexual experiences of sexual abused children and adolescents. Theme Two: The social development of sexually abused children and adolescents. Theme Three: School-related experiences and academic performance of sexually abused children and adolescents. Theme Four: Advice and suggestions from adult survivors for young victims of CSA. 12 Stage 2 offered recommendations to the teachers of learners who are, or have been sexually abused, derived from the findings of Phase 1. The conclusion was reached that CSA does have an impact on the academic performance of learners. Therefore, teachers are in need of a greater understanding and awareness of CSA, in order to help these learners.

The purpose of this study was to provide an in-depth description of the lived experience of recovery for young adult women who had been sexually abused as children. Nine women participated in the study. In order to be a part of the study, the women were between the ages of 16 and 25 at the time of the first interview, and had been sexually abused before the age of 12 by a family member. Family members could include parents, step-parents, siblings, step-siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. The sexual abuse must have been repetitive in nature and lasted for a period of 6 months or longer. The women had also participated in some type of therapy, for at least 6 months, where sexual abuse was the primary focus. As well, the women had some awareness that they were in recovery and were able to talk about their own experience of recovery. The interviews and the data analysis followed a phenomenological approach. The researcher conducted four interviews with each participant over a twenty month period. Ten common themes representing the lived experience of recovery from sexual abuse for young adult women emerged. The lived experience of recovery (1) involves working through the denial of being sexually abused, (2) diminishes the lasting effects of sexual abuse, (3) helps the person move from a victim stance to a survivor stance, (4) is a journey of self-discovery, (5) fosters the possibility for improved relationships with family members, friends, and partners, (6) reduces the negative influence of the perpetrator, (7) encompasses a variety of therapeutic encounters, (8) helps the person to explore the ambiguity of memory, (9) influences future direction, and (10) is a complex process with no clear resolution. The descriptions of each theme illustrate how the women were able to confront and transform the trauma of being sexually abused. The findings of this study describe how young adult women perceive the lived experience of recovery and illuminate what needs to take place so that recovery is possible. The lived experience of recovery is an interactive phenomenon which requires the women to explore the meaning of recovery both intrapersonally and interpersonally. As the women's thoughts, perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and expectations change internally, the ways in which they interact with the world around them shift as well. The lived experience of recovery is both complex and perplexing. The findings from this study offer recommendations for counselling research and practice in the area of sexual abuse for young adult women. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

D.Litt. et Phil. / Incidence and prevalence rates of child sexual abuse and incest are shockingly high. Children of both genders are sexually abused every 25 minutes in South Africa. This abuse results in emotional, spiritual, social, interpersonal, sexual, psychosomatic, neurological and cognitive disturbances. Many of these consequences persist into adulthood. Adult survivors do not always link their symptoms or problems with their childhood sexual abuse experiences. Those that do seek help for those symptoms only in adulthood. Specialised treatment models have been developed for adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. These treatment approaches neglect the spiritual consequences of childhood sexual abuse and have overlooked the value of incorporating the religious or spiritual beliefs of clients into the therapy. Hypnotherapeutic strategies have been successful in treating traumatic conditions, yet, they are not intended for treatment of adult survivors of childhood incest and sexual abuse. This study results in an understanding of the long-term spiritual consequences of adult abuse survivors. A treatment approach, integrating concepts of existing abuse focused models, hypnotherapeutic strategies and the spiritual beliefs of clients is developed to compensate for the aforementioned limitations. To enhance the treatment outcome, principles of Tibetan psychology and rational-emotive therapy were integrated into the treatment approach. The experiences of five female adult survivors’ of the long-term spiritual consequences of the abuse, and their experiences of the hypnotherapeutic approach was assessed in a pilot study. Questions regarding the consequences of the abuse, hypnosis and spirituality were included in the pilot study questionnaire. The results obtained from this study were integrated into the intervention study. The intervention study also consisted of five adult females and the therapy process was defined with reference to the long-term consequences and strategies comprising five modalities (spiritual concepts, Tibetan psychology, cognitive therapy, hypnotherapy, and existing incest focused treatment models). The data obtained from the pilot and intervention studies were qualitatively analysed within an action research methodology. The action research approach consists of four action research cycles. The first cycle comprised the literature review; the second the pilot study; the third the intervention study, and; the fourth, an integration of the above cycles. Findings obtained from the pilot study showed that participants do suffer serious long-term spiritual consequences as a result of having been sexually abused as children. Participants of the pilot study unanimously concluded that the hypnotherapeutic strategies made the therapy more meaningful for them. This corresponds with findings from clinically researched studies. Participants particularly benefited from their visualisations, their self-hypnosis audio-tapes, breathing techniques and from the integration of their personal spiritual beliefs and visualisations into the therapy. The hypnotic trance resulted in greater recall of childhood memories. The interpersonal functioning of the participants improved as well as feelings of guilt, sadness, fear and anger. Conclusions drawn from the interventions study indicate that the synthesis of strategies obtained from the four modalities proved to be a valuable therapeutic treatment approach with adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. As a direct result of the therapy clients were able to heal many negative consequences of the abuse. Clients established healthier interpersonal boundaries, resolved feelings of sadness, fear, aggression, resentment and self-doubt. A few clients formed healthier body-images, became more assertive and self-confident. Certain clients were able to forgive the perpetrators and others found it easier to interact with the perpetrators after their therapy. Furthermore, clients were able to find meaning in their abuse experiences and some decided to be of service to mankind after their therapy. This study is a comprehensive guideline for professionals working with such survivors. Findings in this study may assist professionals to acquire an understanding of the experience of childhood sexual abuse and hypnotherapy as experienced by female survivors. It provides insight into the long-term psychological and spiritual consequences suffered from the abuse. It is hoped that the findings of this study will inform future research, contribute towards theory-building in this field, and assist professionals with their clinical practices. / Prof. W.J. Schoeman Dr. R. Pelser.

Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is associated with negative outcomes in adulthood, including difficulty in relationships. Research has posited CSA may lead to insecure attachment in survivors, which may be the vehicle by which dysfunctional parent-child relationships develop. The purpose of the proposed study was to examine differences in parenting outcomes between CSA and non-CSA mothers utilizing both observational and self-report methods and to examine the unique impact of CSA on parenting attitudes. Abuse status was determined by scores on the Sexual Abuse subscale of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), with the CSA group comprised of mothers scoring in the moderate to severe range. Mothers self-reported parenting attitudes on the Parent-Parental Acceptance Rejection Questionnaire/Control (P-PARQ/Control) and the Adult Adolescent Parenting Inventory-2 (AAPI-2), while parental depression was assessed with the revised Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-2). Parenting behaviors were observed by coding the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment (PCIA). Hypotheses were not supported until child gender was considered as a third variable. Results of MANCOVA analyses indicated CSA mothers, but not comparison mothers, exhibited significantly poorer limit-setting skills (h² = .21) with male children compared to female children, but did not self-report these differences. Although not statistically significant, small but potentially meaningful effect sizes were found when the self-reports of CSA mothers were compared to their observed behaviors. Specifically, CSA mothers displayed increased levels of physical nurturance (h² = .11) and role reversal (h² = .08) with male children compared to female children, but again, did not self-report these differences. Finally, CSA mothers, but not comparison mothers tended to self-report greater beliefs in corporal punishment with male children compared to females (h² = .08). Secondary findings revealed parental depression was the only unique predictor of parental nurturance, attitude toward corporal punishment, and role reversal. Findings confirm the importance of third variables, including child gender and parental depression. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed, as well as limitations and future research directions.

Posttraumatic growth, defined as positive psychological changes in the aftermath of adversity and suffering, is a relatively recent focus in psychological research. The addition of this concept to the literature has provided a new, more resiliency-based framework through which to view survivors of various forms of trauma. Despite estimates that over half of all sexual assaults are not reported to the authorities, current crime statistics indicate that 1 in 4 women are sexually assaulted in their lifetime (Campbell & Wasco, 2005). Given the large percentage of the population that is impacted by sexual assault, it is essential that professionals better understand the factors that influence the successful healing and growth that can occur post-trauma. The purpose of this study was to further expand the literature on posttraumatic growth in sexual assault survivors by considering this phenomenon through the lens of attachment theory. Specifically, this study tested a proposed model of the inter-relationships among subjective and objective perceptions of threat during the sexual assault, adult romantic attachment, and posttraumatic growth. It was hypothesized that adult romantic attachment and parent-child attachment would mediate the relationship between subjective, or perceived threat, defined as the victim's perception of life threat, and objective threat, defined as the severity of the sexually aggressive act perpetrated on the victim, and posttraumatic growth. Finally, it was hypothesized that subjective threat appraisal would better predict posttraumatic growth than objective threat appraisal. Contrary to hypotheses, results of the study indicated that adult romantic attachment and parent-child attachment did not mediate the relationship between subjective and objective threat appraisal and posttraumatic growth. Thus, both path analytic models were not viable. However, exploratory analysis indicated that both subjective and objective threat appraisal were directly related to posttraumatic growth, with subjective perceived threat appraisal accounting for more of the variance.

Structural equation modeling was used to examine how childhood sexual abuse (and other associated variables, such as family functioning and experiencing multiple forms of abuse) relates to revictimization and psychological distress. Participants were women who participated in Project HOW: Health Outcomes of Women interviews, a longitudinal study that spanned six waves of interviews. Only women with a history of childhood sexual abuse were included in the present study (n=178). Experiencing nonsexual child maltreatment in addition to childhood sexual abuse appears directly related to adult sexual and physical revictimization and indirectly related to psychological distress. Childhood sexual abuse alone was not predictive of revictimization or psychological abuse. This suggests that other mediating factors may explain the relation between CSA and revictimization found in other research. Clinical implications based on the results of the present study emphasize the importance of identifying children who have experienced multiple forms of abuse as particularly at risk for future victimization. In addition, providing interventions with a focus on education and empowerment might decrease risk for future violence and subsequent emotional maladjustment. Potential future research could examine the treatment outcomes and efficacy of these interventions as well as identify those mediating factors that increase the risk for adult revictimization for those individuals who experience only childhood sexual abuse.

The developmental impact of the family system on a child varies according to the functional status of the family. Harter, Pamela, and Neimeyer (1988) found that sexually abused children reported perceptions of significantly less cohesion and adaptability than nonabused children within their families of origin.

The results of this study revealed that despite the childhood sexual abuse event, the victims were able to change their views in a positive direction with regard to the benevolence of the world and people as they marched through life and presumably experienced positive events.

The narratives of Asian American female sex workers are stories that demonstrate pain, pleasure, and power. These depictions often portray a woman as desirable (submissive and obedient because she was “saved” by a White man) or undesirable (war prostitute disrupting the purity of America). This is due to the failed efforts from policymakers and English educators to look beyond simple Black versus White racial relationships and beyond the needs of White feminists. When this occurs, the Asian American female student finds herself invisible. The purpose of this study was to look specifically through the niche demographic of Asian American female sex workers. This study was not meant to exclude other women, men, and humans of Asian descent, or sex workers of other races, but these are the first individuals I had the privilege of accessing as I am only beginning my sex work scholar journey. These particular women are of Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese descent, and this specified the research of my literature review. Because they also all identify as cisgender, gender dynamics were explored in this context. The participants were sampled to explore the historical and current conditions of Asian American females, the curriculum they received (or did not receive) in their high school English classes regarding Asian American female protagonists or storytelling of the body, and how these factors affected their sex work experiences. This research also moved to deepen the definition of sex work. As sex work is traditionally a consensual sexual service or erotic performance in exchange for money or goods, many women provide their services without consent or without money—and sometimes without both. The sex work, or sexual abuse, is then more of an unwanted labor they are forced to carry with them painfully. This research was not out to prove sex work is wrong or right; rather, it talked across the pain, pleasure, profit, problems, and power of these experiences. It also presents a more modernized take on sexual ways of being. I reached an authentic understanding of how these women’s bodies were navigated in the classroom, the bedroom, and beyond. With their stories, new policies and pedagogies are proposed to better serve forgotten female students in the English classroom by using the body as an entry point for unique storytelling.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention proposes that universities/colleges implement comprehensive sexual violence prevention programming (SV-PP). Data suggest intimate partner violence (IPV) exceeds campus sexual violence (SV) rates with rape culture (RC) creating an environment conduce to SV; with limited information on graduate students’ SV and IPV experiences. To improve university/college SV-PP, counseling, and mental health services for all students, studies of IPV and SV, and a contributing factor, RC, are needed. This dissertation is a secondary data analysis of the American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment IIc comparing responses from Spring 2016 to Spring 2019 to illuminate the relationship between IPV and SV. Specific aims were to: 1) explore the relationship between IPV and SV amongst students; 2) compare IPV and SV experiences between undergraduate and graduate students; and, 3) develop an instrument assessing students’ RC perceptions. Analyses (SPSS Version 26) illustrated that SV was correlated (2016: r=.25, p<.001; 2019: r=.29, p<.001) with IPV; with rates of IPV exceeding SV. Undergraduates had disproportionately higher experiences of SV and IPV than graduate students. Factors that increased odds for SV and IPV: being female, transgender, non-White, non-heterosexual, lower GPA, and/or drug use. Non-White subgroups of the college population, such as American Indian/Alaskan Native/Native Hawaiian students, had higher rates and increased odds of experiencing SV (OR: 1.47, 95% CI [1.29, 1.67], p<.001) and any form of IPV (OR: 1.53, 95% CI [1.34, 1.74], p<.001) than other subgroups. Among variables analyzed using logistic regression, drug use (excluding marijuana) within the last 30 days was associated with the highest odds of SV (OR 5.29, 95% CI [3.11, 9.01], p<.001) and IPV (OR 6.02, 95% CI [3.62, 10.03], p<.001). To improve resources, educate the campus community, and support survivors, it is imperative campuses understand the relationship between SV, IPV, RC, and those at increased risk for victimization. Colleges and universities can facilitate systemic change by accurately naming the culture that supports violence against women as “rape culture,” measuring RC on campus, and engaging in multitiered PP at all levels of the institution.