Acid rain alters freshwater pH and ion composition, preventing organisms from performing essential bodily functions causing mortality. Macroinvertebrate communities in acidified streams are characterized by species loss in response to physiological stress and altered food quality resulting from the degradation of microbial (e.g., fungi on leaves) communities. Although freshwater acidification in the U.S. is lessening following reduced industrial emissions, little is known about macroinvertebrate recovery. Often, biotic recovery is assessed by looking at changes to what taxa and how many individuals are present in the community (e.g., richness, density). While providing a metric for change, changes in "who" is there (i.e., richness) doesn't necessarily tell us changes in "what" they are doing (i.e., function). The relationship between diversity and function requires linking a "who" to their "what" with direct measurements or as indicated by their traits. Traits are attributes of an organism that aggregate biological, morphological, and behavioral information and may relate to their success in a particular environment. For example, taxa that cannot survive with stream drying (not desiccation resistant) may only be found in streams with permanent water. Trait-based taxonomic metrics could bridge "who" and "what" and expand the impact of stream recovery assessments. My objective was to assess trends over time in water chemistry and macroinvertebrate taxonomic and trait richness and density following reduced industrial emissions. To do so, I studied two long-term data sets from Shenandoah National Park to assess trends in water chemistry and macroinvertebrate taxa and trait composition over a 30-year period to identify taxa and traits that are sensitive to acidification. I also measured how much biomass macroinvertebrates produced in a year (i.e., secondary production) in two streams (1 acidified; 1 not acidified) to determine taxa and traits that are functionally sensitive to acidification. I used these structural and functional measures of sensitivity to determine if changes in trait richness or density predict changes in the function of that trait (e.g., secondary production). Changes over time show that streams have some recovery from acid rain with increasing stream pH and a greater number of taxa and traits present in the community. Changes in taxa were greater than changes in traits over time. While this result was expected as multiple taxa make up each trait category, it may also suggest minimal or delayed functional recovery over time. Still, macroinvertebrate secondary production indicated that function did differ with differences in acidification. Therefore, observed small changes in traits over time mirror prior studies that found other variables, such as competition for food or space, delay or inhibit macroinvertebrates from returning to the recovering streams. Additionally, there were similarities between traits changing over time and the secondary production of traits that differed between more and less acidified streams. Taxa characterized by long life spans and large body size (e.g., semivoltine, long adult life, slow seasonal development) appeared to be the most sensitive to changes in acidification. These findings suggest that some compositional attributes, like taxonomic or trait richness, may predict functional changes measured as secondary production while others, such as density, do not. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Acid rain causes the acidification of freshwater stream water observed as decreased stream pH and decreased ability of watershed soils to neutralize or "soak up" acidic inputs before they enter the stream. These changes in stream water chemistry inhibit the ability of aquatic animals to perform essential bodily functions resulting in mortality. The total number of aquatic insect taxa and total number of individuals in the community have been found to decrease in response to acidification. Although freshwater acidification is lessening following reduced industrial emissions, little is known about if and how aquatic insects can recover. Often, aquatic insect recovery is assessed through looking at changes to what taxa and how many individuals are present in the community. While providing a metric for change, changes in "who" is there (i.e., richness) doesn't necessarily tell us changes in "what" they are doing (i.e., function). The relationship between diversity and function requires linking a "who" to their "what". This is often done by assessing changes in the taxa present but also looking at how the composition of traits associated with those taxa also change. Traits or taxa-specific characteristics aggregate biological, morphological, and behavioral information and may relate to their ability to live in a given environment. For example, taxa that rely on filtering and consuming fine particles may only be found in faster flowing streams where they function to remove fine particulates. Trait-based assessments could link "who" and "what" to expand our understanding of how stream ecosystems change with a stressor. My objective was to assess recovery of streams in Shenandoah National Park following reduced industrial emissions. To do so, I studied two long-term (1987-2017) data sets from to assess trends in water chemistry and macroinvertebrate taxa and traits. This enabled me to determine "who" is changing in these streams over time. I also measured how much insect biomass s produced in a year (i.e., secondary production) in two streams (1 more acidic; 1 less acidic) to determine what taxa and traits alter "what" (e.g., secondary production) they are doing. I found that long-term trends indicate some recovery from acid rain with improving water quality and an increased number of insect taxa and traits present in the community over time. Changes in insect taxa were greater than changes in their traits suggesting that stream acidification did not greatly alter "what" the insects are doing greatly to begin with or that recovery may be delayed. In contrast, my secondary production study showed that "what" macroinvertebrates are doing does differ in more or less acidic streams. Therefore, our observed minimal changes in traits over time suggest that other variables, such as competition for food or space, delay or inhibit macroinvertebrates from returning to the recovering streams. Additionally, there were similarities between traits changing over time and traits that were different in the more or less acidic streams. Taxa characterized by long life spans and large body size (e.g., semivoltine, long adult life, slow seasonal development) appeared to be the most affected by differences or changes in stream water acidity. These findings suggest that changes in "who" can predict changes in "what" to some degree though static metrics of abundance do not always reflect the function of the taxa or community.

This dissertation examines issues of neo-Confederate collective memory, heritage, and geographical imagination within the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. I analyze a whole range of material cultural practices throughout the entire region centered on the memory of the Civil War including monuments, battlefields, museum exhibits, burial rituals, historical reenactments, paintings, and dramatic performances. These mnemonic sites and rituals throughout the Great Valley of Virginia serve to circulate a dominant and mythologized reading of the Civil War past, one that emphasizes the Lost Cause myth of the Confederacy. In addition to uncovering neo-Confederate forms of memorialization, I also examine how normative lessons of morality, honor, patriotism, masculinity, and hyper-militarism become naturalized as a result of Lost Cause remembrance. The dissertation combines qualitative, practice-based modes of research with a Foucauldian influenced archival methodology that attempts to uncover particular silenced and alternative versions of the past that do not fit with normative version of heritage. / Ph. D.

A Biedermeier Cabin was designed with attention to detail and stylistic simplicity in mind. This cabin, located along the banks of the Shenandoah River, is mainly used during the Summer months. The cabinâ s folding doors open up completely for the Summer months to let the breezes flow through. During the Winter months, when the cabin is not in use, all the windows and doors are folded or slid closed to protect the cabin from harsh weather. This seasonal transformation was a main focus in designing the cabin. The appearance of floating was also incorporated within the design. The intent was for the structure to protrude out of the earth and have a â floatingâ deck that cantilevers above the treetops overlooking the river. The roof folds around the structure, providing a feeling of privacy and intimacy. The roofâ s slope opens up toward the river, the intended primary vista. / Master of Architecture

Cattle exclusion from streams is believed to improve riparian vegetation, in-stream habitat, and composition of aquatic organisms. Yet research on the effects of cattle exclusion have yielded conflicting results. The goal of this study was to examine relationships between physical habitat and benthic macroinvertebrate populations with increasing downstream distance from cattle-impacted stream segments, and determine which physical habitat and chemical water quality parameters are affected by cattle presence. Macroinvertebrates from 24 sites in Rockingham County, VA were used to calculate bioassessment metrics. Fourteen sites made up 4 longitudinal studies where improvement of biotic condition with distance from cattle impact was examined. Linear regression and multilevel modeling results indicated improving macroinvertebrate assemblage with increasing distance downstream from cattle-impacted reaches. Presence of riparian trees and distance from impact had a positive influence on bioassessment scores. A total of 39 stream sites in the Shenandoah Valley were classified using the Rapid Habitat Assessment (RHA) which is based on 10 visual evaluations of physical characteristics. Four of the ten RHA parameters, embeddedness, bank stability, vegetative protection, and riparian vegetative zone width, along with the total RHA score, were associated with cattle presence. This study found that a) RHA factors reflect direct cattle impacts on the riparian zone, but RHA has limitations as a general predictor of cattle impact, b) cattle influence on benthic macroinvertebrates extends hundreds of meters beyond the immediate pasture boundary, and c) improvement in Virginia Stream Condition Index can be predicted as a function of distance downstream. / Master of Science

This study was undertaken to determine the influence or seasonality on marketings, farm price and cash production cost of broilers in the 10-County Shenandoah Valley Area, The association between the seasonal pattern of broiler marketings and the seasonal variation in broiler prices and the relationship of seasonal variations in cash production cost to the seasonal movement of broiler marketings were also determined. Weekly, rather than monthly data were used in the construction of various seasonal indexes. / Master of Science

Practicing science in a policy context demands careful attention. This research presents backcountry campsite conditions found in Shenandoah National Park during 1992. It fuels a policy process grounded in Limits-of-Acceptable-Change (LAC). This context provides an opportunity to critique natural resource science within an LAC process and to illustrate the applicability of techniques from disciplines as diverse as educational testing and policy sciences. The condition, location, and legality of 743 backcountry campsites are reported, as revealed during a census completed using methods from recreation ecology. To assess the consistency and precision of campsite surveyors, techniques from educational measurement are adopted, including generalizability theory and decision studies. For each indicator, these techniques reveal the consistency of raters, their ability to distinguish between unique campsites, and whether raters are systematic. These three components were found to vary considerably for different indicators, reflecting the appropriateness of each indicator for justifying management decisions. In addition to traditional description of survey results, campsite condition indicators of 220 campsites with bare soil are reintegrated using cluster analysis. Seven distinct types of campsites with bare soil exist in the park. This approach should facilitate policy makers’ understanding of findings, and improve investigators’ comprehension of survey data. Recommendations include adopting a multiple strategy policy for managing backcountry campsites in Shenandoah National Park, continuing efforts to adapt generalizability theory to natural resource monitoring, and applying two phase research designs that combine the strengths of both census and survey in an efficient manner guided by generalizability theory. / Master of Science

Density and standing stock of brook trout within the Hazel River, Shenandoah National Park, declined sharply between 1982 and 1989. Most of the reduction occurred within the middle and lower reaches, where density of brook trout declined 66% and 920/0, respectively. This study characterized the movement, growth, and mortality of the Hazel River brook trout population in 1989-1990 and examined the role of these phenomena in the recovery of that population. Physical habitat appeared excellent throughout the stream, with adequate pools, cover, and spawning substrate in all sections. Results from visible implant tag recoveries established that the majority (60%) of adult and yearling trout were sedentary during the one year study period. Brook trout exhibiting movement tended to move upstream during the fall over relatively short distances ( < 250 m). Movements of up to 700 m (up- and downstream) were observed in less than 5% of post-juvenile trout. Young-of-the-year (YOY) trout moved more frequently than other age groups and tended to move downstream; they are probably the primary vehicle of downstream recolonization. Growth and condition of Hazel River brook trout were typical of other streams within Shenandoah National Park. Poor growth occurred during the summer months, which is typical of southeast stream trout populations. Generally, growth was higher in areas where density was lowest. Estimated mortality over summer was highest (400/0) for yearling and adult trout within the upper reaches. Despite closure of the Hazel River to angling for two years, its brook trout population remained depressed in 1989. The study demonstrated that recovery of depleted trout stocks through intrastream migration may be slow. Reasons for the continued depression of the brook trout population in the Hazel River may include predation by American eels, illegal angIer harvest, the sedentary nature of stream-dwelling trout, or a combination of these factors / Master of Science

Attitude surveys can serve as a basis of public interest and opinion inputs to National Park Service planning and management decision making. The initial objective of this study was to develop a method for scaling attitudes which alleviated problems of interpreting effects of two related components of attitude--beliefs and corresponding evaluations of those beliefs. In conjunction with this objective, visitor knowledge about and attitudes toward resource use and management in Shenandoah National Park were assessed. Finally, guidelines were formulated suggesting how to design an effective interpretive message taking into account relevant user characteristics, level of knowledge, and attitudes toward resource use and management in the national park. Considering summer months and weekend/weekday visitation patterns, a stratified random sample of days was selected to contact park visitors. On designated sampling days visitors were contacted at lodges, backcountry stations or campgrounds. Names and addresses were secured via an information release form. In September, 1978, individuals were mailed an attitude survey. A follow-up post card and two selective follow-up questionnaire mailings ensued. Overall response rate was 81 percent. The survey instrument obtained contributions of belief and affective components of attitude. In order to measure these components in a manner reflecting resource management objectives and allowing easy interpretation of attitude scores, a new modified matrix scaling technique was developed. A matrix of attitude scores was computed using an unipolar belief scale and bipolar affect scale. The computed using an unipolar belief scale and bipolar affect scale. The belief scale was also employed to determine visitor level of knowledge concerning resource use and management in Shenandoah National Park. The over-all matrix system was developed within the framework of Fishbein's (1963) expectancy value attitude theory. The scaling method lessened some of the problems created by using standard bipolar st.nnmative scaling. In addition, final scores derived from this matrix procedure were logically consistent, theoretically appropriate, and may be managerially relevant. Results of analyses of variance in overall belief and attitude scores suggested the utility of developing different interpretive messages about resource use and management for the three camping styleslodge, campground, and backcountry users. Attitude changes predicted via the expectancy value formulation indicated the importance of considering the distribution of visitor attitude scores before attempting development of an interpretive message designed to influence attitudes. / Ph. D.

The examination of size distribution, composition and elemental concentration of the aerosol species in the Shenandoah National Park and Manassas, Virginia regions was investigated during a three month summertime period. The relationships between the above mentioned parameters along with prevalent meteorological patterns, emission sources and associated topography were used to determine the geographical origin, aerosol age, and numerous other chemical and physical characteristics of the ambient aerosol. Data for the study were obtained by ground based sampling of particulates and from in situ sampling from an airborne sampling platform. The need for continued surveillance along with improved methods of characterization of the ambient aerosol species is discussed. / Master of Science

This study constructed habitat suitability criteria for fishes of the South Fork of the Shenandoah River, in Virginia. The criteria will be used in an IFIM study to produce estimates of the discharge required by fishes in the South Fork. Chi-square tests were used to evaluate whether criteria described habitat use to a statistically significant degree. Secondly, chi-square tests were used to test transferability. The criteria described the habitat use of seven taxa commonly found in the South Fork to a statistically significant degree. Habitat criteria for two taxa did not describe their habitat use to a statistically significant degree. One set of criteria from the North Fork of the Shenandoah transferred to the fish observed in the South Fork. Secondly, this paper examined observer effects of underwater observation. It was of interest to explore how observer effects influenced habitat suitability criteria.