Estima-se que cerca de 16 milhões de mineradores artesanais produzem entre 380 e 450 t de ouro por ano à escala global. Entretanto esta atividade ainda é negligenciada atores sociais e políticos internacionalmente. A equipe do NAP.Mineração vêm desenvolvendo técnicas e conceitos para transformar a mineração artesanal em uma pequena mineração responsável. Dentro destas iniciativas, foi desenvolvido o conceito de reserva mínima e replicação para adequar a pesquisa mineral à realidade da pequena mineral. A ideia central é minimizar o tempo e os recursos financeiros despendidos em pesquisa mineral, minimizando a reserva à apenas o estritamente necessário para o retorno financeiro do investimento inicial. Neste trabalho foi desenvolvido uma metodologia de análise econômica para a pequena mineração utilizando o conceito de reserva mínima, com diferentes estratégias de replicação da pesquisa mineral. A metodologia foi aplicada em um estudo de caso, uma pequena mina de ouro no Equador. Foi realizado também uma análise estocástica de sensibilidade à variação futuro do ouro. Os resultados mostram que a abordagem de reserva mínima é sempre mais vantajosa do ponto de vista econômico. Ao final é discutido o perfil de investidores para a pequena mineração. / It is estimated that about 16 million artisanal miners produce on a global scale between 380 and 450 t of gold per year. However, this activity is still neglected social and political actors internationally. The NAP.Mineração team have developed techniques and concepts to transform artisanal mining in a small mining responsibility. Within these initiatives, it developed the concept of minimum reserves and replication to suit mining research to the reality of small mineral. The central idea is to minimize the time and financial resources spent on mineral exploration, minimizing the reservation to only what is necessary to the financial return of the initial investment. This work developed a methodology of economic analysis for small-scale mining using the concept of minimum reserve with different replication strategies for mineral exploration. The methodology was applied in a case study, a small gold mine in Ecuador. It was also made a stochastic analysis future sensitivity variation of gold. The results show that the minimum booking approach is always more advantageous from an economic point of view. At the end it is discussed the profile for investor in the small-scale mining.

Desde a regulamentação dos procedimentos de avaliação de impacto ambiental (AIA), em meados dos anos oitenta, numerosos projetos de mineração foram avaliados, aprovados e licenciados no Estado de São Paulo, consumindo grande parte dos escassos recursos humanos e materiais disponíveis para análise técnica de estudos ambientais. Pouco se sabe, no entanto, sobre os resultados efetivamente alcançados com a aplicação do novo instrumento de gestão ambiental. Esta pesquisa teve como propósito geral avaliar a eficácia da aplicação dos procedimentos de AIA aos projetos de mineração no Estado de São Paulo. O foco principal da análise foi a etapa de acompanhamento, ou mais precisamente, a atuação dos órgãos governamentais no sentido de garantir a correta implementação do projeto, bem como do programa de gerenciamento ambiental definido no processo de AIA como condicionante à outorga da licença. Analisaram-se em profundidade seis casos escolhidos entre os estudos de impacto ambiental aprovados no Estado no período compreendido entre os anos de 1987 e 1997. Em cada caso estudado, examinaram-se todos os documentos e registros administrativos disponíveis nos principais órgãos de governo que participam do processo de AIA. Esta tarefa objetivou principalmente (1) obter dados sobre cada projeto; (2) pesquisar todas as medidas mitigadoras e outras medidas de gerenciamento ambiental propostas e incorporadas aos termos e condições de aprovação do projeto; e (3) verificar as ações de controle executadas após a aprovação do projeto. Complementarmente, visitaram-se as minas para observação das condições de implementação dos projetos e das medidas de gerenciamento ambiental. Os resultados do estudo confirmaram largamente suas hipóteses iniciais de que a implementação dos projetos é falha e compromete severamente o processo. Concluiu-se, ainda, que esta situação decorre não somente das deficiências dos órgãos fiscalizadores, incapazes de garantir o cumprimento dos termos e condições estabelecidos na aprovação do estudo de impacto ambiental, mas de uma cadeia de imperfeições que atinge praticamente todas as atividades do processo de AIA. Para superar as deficiências da etapa de acompanhamento, propõem-se, portanto, intervenções nas várias etapas do processo, que deve ser aprimorado e fortalecido, sob pena de transformar-se um poderoso instrumento de gestão como a avaliação de impacto ambiental em apenas mais um obstáculo em meio às já enormes dificuldades burocráticas impostas para a regularização de empreendimentos de mineração. / Since procedures of environmental impact assessment (EIA) were regulated in Brazil, in the mid eighties, numerous mining projects have been assessed, approved and granted environmental permits in the State of São Paulo, draining a great part of the scarce human and material resources available for reviewing environmental studies. Notwithstanding, there are few data concerning the actual results achieved by this new environmental management tool. This research aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of the EIA procedures applied to mining projects in the State of São Paulo. The analysis focused mainly on the follow-up phase, or more precisely, on the government branches’ performance in enforcing the proper implementation of terms and conditions of project approval. The study examined in full detail six cases selected among the environmental impact studies approved in the State of São Paulo between 1987 and 1997. In each case studied, all the documents and administrative records of relevant government organisms that take part in the EIA process have been reviewed. This task aimed mainly at (1) obtaining data on each project, (2) surveying all mitigation and other management measures proposed and incorporated into the terms and conditions of project approval and (3) checking the control actions performed after project approval. Additionally, site visits were carried out in order to check the implementation of the project and the environmental management measures. The study widely confirmed its initial hypothesis that the implementation of mining projects is actually faulty, severely harming the whole process. The research also showed that this situation is not uniquely due to the weak performance of the surveillance agency, which is not able to enforce the terms and conditions of project approval, but also because of several imperfections that pervade most of the EIA process activities. To overcome the deficiencies in the follow-up phase, changes are proposed in several steps of the process, which should be improved and strengthened. If not, a powerful management tool as the environmental impact assessment is endangered to be transformed in just one more obstacle among the already enormous bureaucratic hindrances imposed to mining projects regularization.

Cette étude s'intéresse à la fissuration des structures multi-perforées, soumises à des sollicitations pouvant aller de la plasticité confinée à la plasticité généralisée. Le cas d'étude considéré est celui des chambres de combustion des turbomachines aéronautiques. Le matériau utilisé est le Haynes 188, un superalliage à base de Cobalt, spécialement conçu pour ce type d'applications. La fissuration des structures multi-percées a été souvent étudiée dans des conditions de plasticité confinée. Ces études doivent être étendues au domaine de la plasticité généralisée.Afin d'étudier les interactions entre fissures et perçages, une éprouvette originale a été conçue. Dans le but de reproduire un motif de base simplifié correspondant aux trous de refroidissement des chambres de combustion, l'éprouvette est percée en son centre par trois trous. Des essais de fissuration isotherme à 900°C sous des chargements de fatigue ont été réalisés avec des niveaux de chargement allant de la plasticité confinée à la plasticité généralisée. Ces essais ont permis d'étudier la durée de vie du motif de base. A partir des résultats expérimentaux de contrainte et de déformation, les essais ont été modélisés à une échelle dite macroscopique avec un modèle de fissuration en énergie. Dans le but d'améliorer la description des essais, la modélisation a été ensuite réalisée à une échelle intermédiaire, dite mésoscopique, à partir de calculs par éléments finis. / The purpose of this study is to investigate crack growth of multi-perforated structures when loading can vary from small scale yielding to large scale yielding conditions. In this study we focus on combustion chambers of aerospace engines. The material used in crack growth tests is the Haynes 188, a cobalt based superalloy, specially developed for this type of applications. Studies on crack growth of multi-perforated structures are often made in small scale yielding conditions. These studies have to be extended to large scale yielding conditions.In order to study interactions between cracks and perforations, an original specimen has been developed. The specimen is perforated in the center by three holes inspired by cooling holes of combustion chambers. Fatigue crack growth tests at 900°C have been conducted with loads from small scale to large scale yielding conditions. These tests were used to study life of a base pattern. Using experimental stresses and strains, tests were modeled at a macroscopic scale with an energy based crack growth model. In order to improve experimental results description, tests were modeled at an intermediate mesoscopic scale using finite element calculations.

There is limited research using small-scale simulation in applied behavior analysis. We used small-scale simulation to train firearm safety skills to 3 to 5-years-old children and assessed whether the skills generalized to the natural environment through in situ assessment. Three participants completed the training and all participants learned the safety skills from simulation training. Two of the participants acquired the safety skills after the first simulation training and the third participant required one booster training before demonstrating the safety skills in the natural environment.

Abstract Currently there is a significant change occurring in the area of Finnish agriculture. The amount of farms is decreasing while the average farm size is increasing. Farms have sought for additional income sources outside of agriculture. Already one third of Finnish farms take part in other business activities in addition to agriculture. The main objective of this doctoral thesis is to increase the understanding of the activities of farm related businesses and to find factors by which their development can be promoted. The subject is analysed from a business management point of view. The thesis covers strategies, business models, resource based theory, business development, factors affecting development, problems, and a need for external support. This study follows the hermeneutic approach. The subject under study is complex and diversified, thus, it is approached qualitatively. The farm related case firms (18 in all) represent food processing, tourism, and machine contracting. Farm related enterprises are a heterogeneous group. Some common features were, however, identified in the case firms. The research confirms earlier knowledge indicating that farm related firms have stronger skills in production than in marketing. There are no official strategy processes in use and the strategic planning and strategy implementation are closer to those of the entrepreneurial school. The resource analysis shows that the resources giving competitive advantage to firms with different business ideas vary even within the same business sector. The research confirms the viewpoint that additional business is not simply a transition stage from agriculture to other business activities, but both of them can be active in parallel. The research shows that there are differences between additional business sectors relating to how easy it is to run the business. Machine contracting seems to pose the least problems compared to the other sectors analysed in this study. The research shows that the entrepreneurs do not recognise the reasons behind the problems. The diversified business practises result in a feeling of being insufficient, especially when the farm takes a part of the resources. Farm related businesses should, even to a greater extent than other small firms, focus their business activities. This research lays a foundation for understanding the business models, resources, and development paths of the farm related businesses and gives recommendations for how to promote additional businesses on farms. / Tiivistelmä Suomen maataloudessa on meneillään voimakas rakennemuutos. Maatilojen määrä vähenee ja tilojen keskikoko kasvaa. Tilat etsivät uusia toimeentulolähteitä maatalouden ulkopuolisista toiminnoista. Jo kolmannes Suomen maatiloista harjoittaa myös muuta yritystoimintaa maa- ja metsätalouden lisäksi. Tämän väitöskirjan päätavoitteena on lisätä ymmärrystä maatilakytkentäisten yritysten toiminnasta ja kehittymisestä sekä löytää tekijöitä, joilla niiden kehittymistä voidaan edistää. Asiaa lähestytään liikkeenjohdon näkökulmasta, minkä sisällä tarkastellaan strategiaa, liiketoimintamalleja, resurssiperusteista teoriaa, muun yritystoiminnan kehittymistä, kehittymiseen vaikuttavia tekijöitä, ongelmia sekä ulkopuolisen avun tarvetta. Tässä väitöskirjassa esitettävä tutkimus on lähtökohdiltaan hermeneuttista. Tutkittava aihe on moni-ilmeinen, joten sitä lähestytään kvalitatiivisesti. Tutkimus on pääosin deskriptiivistä, vaikka lopussa esitetään suosittelevia johtopäätöksiä. Aineistossa mukana olevat maatilakytkentäiset yritykset (yhteensä 18) edustavat elintarvikkeiden jatkojalostusta, matkailua ja koneurakointia. Maatilakytkentäisten yritysten joukko on heterogeeninen. Aineiston yrityksistä tunnistettiin kuitenkin joitain tyypillisiä piirteitä. Asiakaskunta on maantieteellisesti suppealla alueella ja strategiavalintana on erikoistuminen. Yritysten strategia ja toiminta ovat rönsyileviä. Tutkimus vahvistaa aikaisempaa tietoa siitä, että maatilakytkentäiset yritykset ovat enemmän tuotanto- kuin markkinointiosaajia. Yrityksissä ei ole käytössä virallisia strategiaprosesseja, vaan strategian suunnittelu ja toteutus ovat lähimpänä yrittäjyyskoulukuntaa. Tutkimus vahvistaa aikaisempaa tietoa siitä, että muun yritystoiminnan pääasiallisena tavoitteena on jatkuva ja vakaa tulovirta viljelijäperheelle. Resurssien tarkastelu osoittaa, että eri liikeidealla toimivilla yrityksillä kilpailuetua tuovat resurssit vaihtelevat myös toimialan sisällä. Tutkimus vahvistaa näkökantaa, että muu yritystoiminta ei ole pelkkä siirtymävaihe maataloudesta yritystoimintaan, vaan niitä voidaan harjoittaa myös yhdessä. Tutkimus osoittaa muun yritystoiminnan toimialan vaikuttavan toiminnan ongelmallisuuteen sekä maatilan kehittymiseen. Urakointi vaikuttaa ongelmattomimmalta muihin aineistossa mukana olleisiin aloihin verrattuna. Yrittäjät kokevat useimmiten ongelmalliseksi markkinoinnin, pääoman sitoutumisen ja ajan puutteen. Tutkimuksen mukaan yrittäjät eivät tunnista ongelmiensa syitä. Aineiston perusteella voidaan todeta, että avuntarpeen taustalla on liikkeenjohdollisten työkalujen käytön puute ja toimintatapa. Toiminnan hajanaisuus johtaa riittämättömyyden tunteeseen, varsinkin kun maatila vie osan resursseista. Maatilakytkentäisten yritysten tulisikin jopa normaalia pienyritystä tarkemmin rajata toimintaansa. Tutkimus luo pohjaa maatilakytkentäisten yritysten toimintatavan, resurssien ja kehityspolkujen tuntemukselle sekä esittää suosituksia, millä tavoin maatilojen harjoittamaa muuta yritystoimintaa tulisi edistää.

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / This thesis interrogates the claim that resource-poor, rural land seekers can acquire land through the land market which constitutes the central mechanism of land redistribution in South Africa's market-based land reform programme. The study explores two key aspects in relation to this claim. Firstly, it provides a critique of the underlying assumptions prevalent in much of the current market-based land reform policy, as advocated by its national and international proponents, and the manner in which the market as a mechanism for land redistribution has been conceptualized and its outcomes envisaged. Secondly, it considers the extent to which this conceptualization - which it is argued, draws on idealized and abstracted notions of land market functioning - is realized and examines the extent to which the espoused outcomes of market-based land reform policy are aligned with or contradicted by the functioning of real markets and the experiences of resource-poor land seeking people in their attempts to engage in the land market with limited state support. The details of the market's operation are analysed, with a distinction made between the operational practice of real markets - based on direct evidence-based observation and degrees of policy abstraction and theoretical assumptions regarding how markets should or might operate. The study's methodological framework draws on an agrarian political economy perspective, as used by theorists such as Akram-Lodhi (2007) and Courville (2005), amongst others. This perspective enables a consideration of the various contexts and socially embedded processes involved in land transactions and the extent to which these are shaped and framed by the politics of policy-making. In line with this perspective, the study focuses on the social relations brought to bear on the acquisition of land and the way in which land markets operate. It is suggested that land is not solely viewed as an economic commodity by land-seekers. Furthermore, it was found that markets cannot be understood as neutral institutions in which participants are equal players. / South Africa

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / To address the urgent need for safe potable water in South Africa’s rural areas, sustainable systems for water disinfection at the village-scale of operation are required.In this thesis, the development of a small-scale water chlorination system that runs on salt and solar panels is described. The system combines a membrane-based hypochlorite generator, or “membrane electrolyser”, with an automated hypochlorite dosing system.The system was designed to (i) coordinate hypochlorite production and dosing automatically in a flow-through system, and (ii) fit inline with low pressure pipelines from overhead storage tanks or raised water sources. Low cost materials were used for construction, and water-powered mechanisms were devised to control both brine supply to the electrolyser and regulation of water flow. The capacity of the system was based on the maximum daily output of the electrolyser at ~20 g of sodium hypochlorite. This was sufficient chlorinate up to 10 kL of water per day using less than 80 g of salt and less than 0.1 kW.h of electricity. The cost of the system was estimated at ~R10 000 and therefore potentially affordable for communities up to 100 people, e.g. small farms and villages.Testing of the system was carried out at a farm site in Worcester (Western Cape) using remote monitoring of current levels in the electrolyser. Operation of the system over a two month test period, dosing at ~4 mg/L, produced consistent chlorination measured as(FAC). Community participation in maintenance of the brine supply was managed and chlorinated water was made available to the community after a brief social survey was conducted. Community awareness of chlorination was minimal. No significant history of diarrhoea was reported. However, the community regularly boiled their tap water in response to turbidity increase in summer.The system was affected by turbidity increase in the local water, which caused a drop in electrolyser current and chlorine production due to particle blockage of the membrane in the electrolyser. However, turbidity at acceptable levels for chlorination was found to have no detrimental effect on the system’s performance. The system showed promise for rural implementation providing low turbidity was maintained. Therefore,groundwater sites, and surface waters with appropriate clarification systems are recommended for the system’s installation. Further testing of the system will be required to establish its long term viability in the hands of a rural community.

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / Dynamics of Social Reproduction and Differentiation among Small-Scale Sugarcane Farmers in Two Rural Wards of KwaZulu-Natal A. Dubb M.Phil thesis, Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape. Outgrower or contract-farming schemes have long been considered an important „pro-poor‟ method of incorporating small-scale farmers into agro-commodity chains, oft defined by their capital intensity and consequent high barriers of entry. Nonetheless, critics have observed that such schemes often operate under highly imbalanced relations of power between farmers and processors, generate substantial inequality, and negatively impact on household food security. In the province of KwaZulu-Natal, home to much of South Africa‟s sugar industry, the number of small-scale sugarcane outgrowers increased rapidly from near nothing in the late 1960s to around 50,000 in the early 2000s; an increase born out of industry-subsidized miller initiatives, disguised as micro-credit, to bring commercially inalienable Bantustan land under cane production. However, in the past decade small-scale sugarcane growers have faced a precipitous decline following the restructuring of the sugar industry in the 1990s and the onset of drought in the 2000s. This study seeks to trace the origins and shifting structural foundations of small-scale sugarcane production and investigate its impacts on dynamics of social reproduction and accumulation in two rural wards of the Umfolozi region, in the wake of the sale of the central mill by the multinational corporation Illovo to a consortium of largescale white sugarcane growers. Utilizing survey data from 74 small-scale grower homesteads and life-history interviews, it is argued that regulatory restructuring resulted in deteriorating terms of exchange and the retraction of miller oversight in production, cane-haulage and ploughing operations, hence devolved to commercially unstable local contractors. Growers have subsequently struggled to compensate for consequent capital inefficiencies through intensified exploitation, largely due to the successful impact of social grants in mitigating the desperation of family and hired labour, and further face considerable barriers to expansion in land. While proceeds from sugarcane continue to represent an additional source of coveted cash-income, sparse off-farm income opportunities have gained prominence as a basis for stabilizing consumption and some re-investment in cane. The centrality of incomediversification for simple reproduction and limited accumulation has rendered the dynamics of social differentiation to be both unstable and reversible, and has closely tied sustained cane production to the labour content of non-cane income sources. Meanwhile, with less direct oversight in production, millers face the challenge of retaining their implicit „grab‟ on customary land, throwing into relief the contradictions inherent in attempts „from above‟ to foster a nominal „peasant‟ class „from below‟.

Magister Artium - MA / The conventional top-down approach to development has been rendered unsustainable and is regarded as a poor strategy to achieving community empowerment and development. The past few decades have seen the promotion of bottom-up techniques whereby governments and developing agents collaborate with target beneficiaries and view them as equal partners in the development of their own communities. It is generally believed that the participation of farmers in agricultural projects improves the performance of the agricultural sector. However, despite the adoption of participatory models, agricultural societies have remained plagued by poverty. It is against this background that this research using the Mazowe District as a case study investigated the nature and extent of participation by small scale farmers in the Development Aid from People to People (DAPP) Farmers’ Club in order to document the extent to which farmers have been empowered. The study made use of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to gather relevant data. Broadly the findings indicate that the participation of farmers in the DAPP Farmers' Club project was substantively high. The results also suggest that the project empowered farmers to farm more productively in the case study area. In light of the findings the study recommends that governments and NGOs should follow the values and principles of the people-centred development (PCD) theory when implementing agricultural projects as it has proven to be an empowering approach. This practice may transform societies as there is an opportunity to address societal needs at grassroots level. In view of this research it can be argued that capacitating farmers through training and improving their farming skills can improve their agricultural production.

This dissertation claims that the reciprocal exchange of voice—an element for constructing community and strengthening political recognition—may be fostered in small-scale farming communities by (1) the appropriation and transformation of information and communications technologies, (2) artistic intervention, and (3) cross-community research. This study contributes to participatory research methodologies, particularly those that seek to tackle the diverse challenges faced by small-scale farmers from a broad, complex perspective. The main issue identified in this dissertation is as follows: The hegemony of economic behaviors, which stands as a cornerstone of neoliberal capitalism, constitutes the latest stage of a historical process in which the voices of small-scale farmers seem to have been progressively and systematically silenced, their traditional practices largely invalidated, and their reciprocal forms of social, political, and economic organization marginalized. The purpose of this study was to explore whether an open-ended, sociotechnical methodology could be designed and applied in small-scale farming communities with the aim of strengthening their reciprocal practices while amplifying the voices of their members. The author's research addressed the question of how the role of information and communications technologies can contribute to the creation of enabling environments in which subsistence farmers may exercise their own values and make their voices heard. Another goal was to study whether the reciprocal exchange of voice could relate to the construction and dissemination of a knowledge commons and improve the resilience of small-scale farmers in the context of complex and pressing challenges such as anthropogenic climate change. Consequently, the ERV (Enabling Reciprocal Voice) Methodology was developed and applied in small-scale farming communities in order to respond to the questions of this study. The ERV Methodology sought to redefine the modes of usage of information and communications technologies in order to help communities establish a shared communicational praxis and strengthen their reciprocal relations. The ERV Methodology stands in contrast with the technological determinism found in the purely solutionist, short-term initiatives that are generally implemented in small-scale farming communities. Instead of offering rapid solutions to isolated problems, the ERV Methodology sought to consolidate the social networks of farmers through online and offline interaction. The case studies examined in this dissertation were carried out in two small-scale farming communities in Tanzania and Mexico. Following the ERV Methodology, mobile phones and the Internet were used by farmers in those communities as tools for the collaborative creation of a knowledge commons focused on local agriculture. It was found that the ERV Methodology, carried out as artistic intervention, may encourage technological appropriation, induce reciprocity, and amplify voice under certain sociotechnical conditions. These findings suggest that such a methodology might benefit farmers by becoming a significant aid to increase their resilience and their capacity to face complex challenges in the longer term. However, another conclusion was that the ERV Methodology should be applied carefully, with a strong awareness of the local context, and that greater efforts must be made in order to integrate other communities, such as local authorities and scientific researchers, into the reciprocal dynamics enabled by the methodology.