The focus of this thesis is the synthesis of organometallic complexes incorporating the η8-permethylpentalene titanium moiety (η⁸-Pn*Ti), their characterisation, and their reactivity with small molecules. <b>Chapter One</b> summarises the chemistry of the pentalene molecule, from its instability in the free state to the incorporation of the hydrocarbon into organometallic complexes. The chapter continues with a review of the coordination modes available to Pn and concludes with a brief discussion on the effects of permethylation of hydrocarbon ligands and the advent of permethylpentalene (Pn*). <b>Chapter Two</b> documents the improved synthesis of [Pn*TiCl(μ-Cl)]₂ utilising isomeric control imparted on the Pn* synthon, Pn*(SnMe₃)₂. This protocol permits access to a variety of methylated compounds through metathesis chemistry, of which five have been crystallographically elucidated, revealing the fold angle to be reliant on an interplay between steric and electronic factors. Mono-, bi- and trimetallic {Pn*TiMe₂, [Pn*TiMe(μ-Cl)]₂ and [Pn*Ti(μ-Me)]₂(μ-CH₂), and [Pn*TiMe(μ-Me)₂]₂Mg respectively} species were synthesised dependent on the methylating agent employed and they displayed varying thermal stabilities, with the dimeric nature of [Pn*TiMe(μ-Cl)]₂ proving crucial in the formation of [Pn*Ti(μ-Cl)]₂(μ-CH₂). <b>Chapter Three</b> describes the incorporation of classical organometallic ligands into the Pn*Ti moiety, including the first examples of benzyl, alkyl, aryl, allyl and η¹-Cp bound to a PnTi fragment. Seven complexes have been structurally characterised including the first ever crystal structure of a π-hydrocarbon bound Ti species bearing two CH₂^tBu groups, Pn*Ti(CH₂^tBu)₂, and the fluxional mixed hapticity complex Pn*Ti(η⁵-Cp)(η¹-Cp), whose η¹-Cp rearranges via a 1,2-sigmatropic shift. <b>Chapter Four</b> investigates the reactivity of the monomeric dialkyls, Pn*TiR₂ (R = Me, CH₂Ph, CH₂SiMe₃ and CH₂^tBu) with CO₂, CO and H₂. All four compounds demonstrate “normal” insertion of the CO₂ moiety into both Ti-R bonds, revealing a symmetrical bidentate coordination of the RCO₂ units. Computational studies have highlighted two competing pathways for their reaction with CO, dependent on the concentration of CO and size of R, which results either in formation of an enediolate or a titanoxirane. The reaction with H₂ yields the fascinating trimeric mixed valence, [Pn*Ti(μ₂-H)]₃(μ₃-H), the first structurally characterised example of a trimeric Ti-H species and the first to include a Ti-(μ₃-H) moiety. (Pn*TiCl)₂(μ-O) is formed by the action of adventitious H₂O and possesses a linear Ti-O-Ti bridge with a degree of Ti-O double bond character, supported by crystallographic data and DFT calculations. <b>Chapter Five</b> discusses ethylene polymerisation studies on the monomeric dialkyl complexes Pn*TiR₂ (R = Me, CH₂Ph, CH₂SiMe₃ and CH₂^tBu) using the activators [Ph₃C][B(C₆F₅)₄], [PhNMe₂H][B(C₆F₅)₄], AlⁱBu₃ and H₂. <b>Chapter Six</b> presents full experimental procedures for all of the syntheses and reactions outlined in Chapters Two to Five. <b>Chapter Seven</b> details characterising data for all novel compounds, and crystallographic data in the form of CIF files may be found in the electronic version.

Thesis advisor: James P. Morken / Platinum-catalyzed enantioselective diboration of various hydrocarbon starting materials to form stereodefined carbon-boron bonds is reported. The asymmetric Pt-catalyzed 1,4-diboration of <italic>trans</italic>-1,3-dienes provided 1,4-bis(boronate)esters in up to 98:2 er, representing the first enantioselective diene diboration. The enantioselective 1,2-diboration of <italic>cis</italic>-1,3-dienes and 4,4-disubstituted dienes afforded 1,2-bis(boronate)esters in up to 98:2 er. The intermediate allylboronates were utilized in aldehyde allylations to furnish polypropionate-like compounds and stereodefined carbon quaternary centers. The development of a Pt-catalyzed enantioselective diboration of terminal olefins is disclosed, giving the corresponding 1,2-diols in up to 97:3 er. Further optimization and expansion of the scope of this method is also discussed. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2011. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

The prevalence of stress and anxiety disorders in modern society is increasing, but the development of new treatments decreasing due to high research costs and low success rates in clinical trials. The latest type of compounds introduced to treat anxiety and depression was the specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), which was introduced in 1987. Since then, no new class of compounds have been introduced, suggesting that the need to find alternative targets in treating mental disorders is needed. In this thesis I have used the zebrafish as a model organism to study the modulation of behaviours through intracellular signalling pathways, known to be involved in learning, memory and anxiety. First, using the pro-convulsant compound, pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), an automated tracking system was established to quantify and analyse swimming behaviour in larvae zebrafish. Pentylenetetrazole induces seizures in zebrafish at high concentrations, however this thesis identifies that the combination of a low level of PTZ and subjecting the fish to alternating cycles of light and dark induced a reversed response to light and dark. A group of compounds with known anti-seizure effects were subsequently screened, which found that a combinational treatment with diazepam and two types of neurosteroids reversed the PTZ-induced light dark response. Secondly, using the same automated analysis setup, the effect of cAMP modulators was studied on behaviour in zebrafish larvae. Our lab has previously established that Rolipram, a PDE4 inhibitor, causes anxiety thigmotaxis in zebrafish larvae. In this thesis we treated zebrafish larvae with Rolipram and other compounds modulating cAMP, which greatly increased the swimming activity, which was reversed by subsequently treating with PD0325901. To test if the pharmacological modulation of cAMP-levels through the inhibition of other PDEs would lead to increased locomotor activity, a small library of PDE inhibitors was screened, and 4 compounds were identified that caused an increase in locomotion – three of these compounds were PDE4-inhibitors. Finally, by using two behavioural assays, I found that in adult fish Rolipram cause anxiety-like phenotypes, which is also reversible by MAPK-inhibition.

The p300 transcriptional coactivator has been implicated in the development of a large number of malignancies; however, the precise mechanism of p300-associated tumorigenesis remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate the functional impact of p300 in human melanomas using both genetic and chemical approach. Depletion of p300 in human melanoma cells was associated with cellular growth arrest and senescence. Microarray analysis identified the Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), a critical lineage-specific transcription factor in melanocytes and melanomas, as a major downstream target of p300 in human melanoma. Ectopic expression of MITF in p300-depleted melanoma cells allowed rescue of the p300-silencing phenotype, suggesting a critical regulatory axis involving p300 and MITF. Chromatin immunoprecipitation studies revealed direct regulation of MITF transcription through p300 acetylation of proximal regulatory domains. Critically, we identified that Forkhead Box M1 (FOXM1), a potent pro-proliferation transcription factor, is a target of the p300-MITF signaling axis. Further evaluation of p300 regulation of melanoma cell growth was performed using a highly selective p300/CBP HAT inhibitor, 228-1. Inhibition of p300/CBP histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity was found to significantly inhibit proliferation of multiple melanoma lines in an MITF-dependent fashion. Together, these data support the role of p300 as a promising therapeutic target in human melanoma and suggest particular therapeutic efficacy of small molecule inhibitors of p300 HAT activity in tumors expressing high levels of MITF. / 2018-12-14T00:00:00Z

The retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein, Rb, is a key regulator of the mammalian cell cycle and its inactivation facilitates S-phase entry. Rb is inactivated through multiple waves of phosphorylation, mediated mainly by kinases associated with D and E type cyclins in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Our earlier studies had shown that the signaling kinase Raf-1 (c-Raf) physically interacts with Rb upon growth factor stimulation and initiates the phosphorylation cascade. We had shown that an 8 amino acid peptide derived from Raf-1 could disrupt the Rb-Raf-1 interaction leading to an inhibition of Rb phosphorylation, cell proliferation and tumor growth in nude mice. Here, we describe a newly identified orally-active small molecule, RRD-251 (Rb - Raf-1 Disruptor 251), that disrupts potently and selectively the binding of Raf-1 to Rb; it had no effect on Rb-HDAC1, Rb-Prohibitin, Rb-Ask1, Rb-cyclin E, or Raf-1-Mek interactions. RRD-251 inhibited anchorage-dependent and -independent growth of human cancer cells; it could also potently inhibit angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. Oral or intra-peritoneal administration of RRD-251 resulted in a significant suppression of growth of tumors xenotransplanted into athymic nude mice; the tumor suppressive effects were restricted to tumors carrying a wild-type Rb gene. Thus, selective targeting of Rb-Raf-1 interaction appears to be a promising approach for developing novel anti-cancer agents. In addition to mitogens, tobacco components like NNK and nicotine can induce cell proliferation and angiogenesis, contributing to lung cancer. Induction of cell proliferation by tobacco components required the binding of Raf-1 to Rb and RRD-251 could prevent nicotine induced cell proliferation. Our studies also show how nicotine not only promotes tumor growth in vivo, it also increases chance of tumor recurrence and metastasis. In addition to growth factors and tobacco components, cytokines like TNFα could induce Rb-Raf-1 interaction in vascular smooth muscle cells. Since TNFα-induced proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells contributes to growth of atherosclerotic plaques, RRD-251 could be beneficial in controlling atherosclerosis as well. Thus, it appears that drugs that can disrupt the Rb-Raf-1 interaction might have beneficial effects in a wide spectrum of human diseases.

DNA lesions arise constantly in cells and are repaired by a variety of DNA repair pathways. Polynucleotide kinase 3’-phosphatase (PNKP) aids repair by phosphorylating 5’-hydroxyl DNA termini and dephosphorylating 3’-phosphate DNA termini for the completion of repair by DNA ligases. This activity is critical in vivo because DNA breaks do not usually possess ligatable termini. PNKP knockdown sensitizes cells to several DNA damaging agents, including the topoisomerase I (TOP1) inhibitor camptothecin - analogs of which are being developed into chemotherapeutic drugs - because the resolution of stalled TOP1-DNA complexes requires processing by PNKP. We hypothesize that small molecule inhibitors of PNKP could bolster the effects of radio- and chemotherapies on cancer cells. I have identified eight compounds that effectively inhibit human PNKP and, with reduced potency, T4 PNK in vitro. These compounds act by reversibly inhibiting the substrate-enzyme interaction but they do not appear to sensitize U2OS cells to camptothecin.

DNA lesions arise constantly in cells and are repaired by a variety of DNA repair pathways. Polynucleotide kinase 3’-phosphatase (PNKP) aids repair by phosphorylating 5’-hydroxyl DNA termini and dephosphorylating 3’-phosphate DNA termini for the completion of repair by DNA ligases. This activity is critical in vivo because DNA breaks do not usually possess ligatable termini. PNKP knockdown sensitizes cells to several DNA damaging agents, including the topoisomerase I (TOP1) inhibitor camptothecin - analogs of which are being developed into chemotherapeutic drugs - because the resolution of stalled TOP1-DNA complexes requires processing by PNKP. We hypothesize that small molecule inhibitors of PNKP could bolster the effects of radio- and chemotherapies on cancer cells. I have identified eight compounds that effectively inhibit human PNKP and, with reduced potency, T4 PNK in vitro. These compounds act by reversibly inhibiting the substrate-enzyme interaction but they do not appear to sensitize U2OS cells to camptothecin.

Cancer is responsible for one fourth of the total deaths and is the second leading cause of death, behind heart disease, in the United States. However, there are as many approaches to curing cancer as there are types of cancer. One important issue in solid tumors is hypoxia, a lack of oxygen, which promotes angiogenesis and anaerobic metabolism, which can increase cancer progression and metastasis. The HIF transcription factor is responsible for the mediation of many processes involved during hypoxia and is linked to poor patient prognosis, increased cancer progression, and invasiveness of tumors. With this in mind, the HIF pathway has become an attractive target for small molecule inhibition. Herein, we describe the design and synthesis of small molecules that inhibit the HIF pathway. These compounds are based off an initial “hit” compound, KCN-1, from screening of a 10,000 compound library. KCN1 is both highly effective and has a low toxicity profile. Over 200 compounds have been synthesized by the Wang lab, with the best compound IVSR64b having an IC50 of 0.28 μM. Of special interest is that these compounds do not appear to have any inherent toxicity toward healthy tissues, but only affect cancer cells. Moreover, x-ray crystal structures for both KCN-1 and IVSR64b were obtained and used as the basis for computational modeling, which is still in progress.

Effective tissue engineering scaffolds should mimic the physical and chemical attributes of native tissue. Native tissues have intricate patterns, a multitude of porosities, and large water contents that are each directly associated with their ability to regulate and support life function. Therefore, the physical architecture of scaffolds intended to mimic these tissues for engineering applications plays an important role in scaffold performance both in vitro and in vivo. Self-assembling molecules organize into intricate patterns with a complexity that resembles that of native tissue. Hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels are widely used in tissue engineering for a variety of applications but fail to offer physical architecture beyond the inherent hydrogel porosity. To address this issue, a novel method to impose architecture within thin HA-based films using crystal nucleation was developed in the Schmidt lab [1]. The work described herein extends this method for use in three-dimensional matrices, with the main vii goal being the creation of hydrogels with a complex macroarchitecture. Four in situ self-assembling molecules were used: glycine, guanidine, urea and potassium dihydrogen phosphate. The crystallization of each molecule creates a specific porous network within the hydrogel that is the negative imprint of the crystalline geometry. The novel restriction of aqueous polymer into the molecule interstitial crystalline space allows hydrogels to embody complex geometric lumen architectures. The hydrogels were characterized in terms of their internal architectures, swelling, bulk moduli, biodegradability, cytotoxicity and in vitro cellular response. The unique structure-property relationships displayed by hydrogels templated by each of the crystallizing molecules were characterized in regards to mechanical properties. The need for complex microscopic architecture is conserved over many tissue engineering applications and templated scaffolds were evaluated for two unique applications. Crystal-templated hydrogels were investigated for use as an artificial stem cell niche environment to expand undifferentiated neural progenitor cells. Additionally, the templated hydrogels were evaluated for the in vitro study of myelin expression from Schwann cells. A hydrogel that combines the biocompatible properties of HA and the architectural complexity of native tissue may prove beneficial for biomedical applications. / text

Over one-third of the world’s population is at risk for infection with dengue virus (DENV), a mosquito-borne virus that can cause a severe febrile disease. There are no specific treatments available for dengue infection, and much remains unknown about how DENV interaction with the host cell leads to a successful infection. This dissertation examines DENV entry using small molecule inhibitors and mutagenesis of the envelope (E) protein, the major protein on the viral surface. This work grew from our initial observation that small molecule GNF-2 is capable of lowering DENV yield when present at two separate points during DENV infection. Treatment of infected cells with GNF-2 post-entry significantly lowered DENV yield, most likely due to GNF-2’s documented activity against Abl kinase. However, we also observed that treatment of virus inocula with GNF-2 prior to cellular infection significantly lowered DENV yield. We discovered that GNF-2 bound directly to the dengue virion and co-localized with DENV envelope protein shortly after cellular infection. Using GNF-2 as a scaffold, we performed a structure-activity relationship study and identified twenty-one compounds that have similar or increased potency as GNF-2 when pre-incubated with virus. Using a subset of compounds from this study, we demonstrated that they block completion of DENV fusion in vitro, suggesting that the compounds inhibit DENV entry by preventing the completion of viral fusion inside cellular endosomes. In experiments complementing the mechanism of action studies, we selected for inhibitor-resistant virus by passaging virus in the presence of small molecules. We identified a single point mutation in the envelope protein located in the domain I/II interface that enhanced viral entry and conferred resistance to virus particles against select compoundsin a single-cycle reporter virus system. Further examination of this E protein “hinge region” found that mutations in this area may affect both release and entry of reporter virus particles. The work presented in this dissertation may inform the design of future small molecule inhibitors of DENV as well as increase our understanding of how point mutations in the DENV E protein can influence viral entry and other steps of the viral life cycle.