No description available.

The thesis examines the social and economic implications of large-scale agribusiness expansion in Indonesia by analyzing how this economic system, as it is envisioned and materialised, reshapes livelihood possibilities. Based on original interviews with oil palm plantation workers, plantation company officials, smallholders, and on secondary research, this thesis scrutinises the forms of knowledge and practices that constitute large-scale oil palm agribusiness. While oil palm agribusiness produces economic opportunities for groups of individuals from certain social categories, it constrains the prospects of others in systematic ways. Oil palm agribusiness, as a project and as a set of practices, is deployed by a broad range of economic actors at different scales in an attempt to govern access to resources. However, the power of oil palm companies and investors over land, labour, and value is contested and negotiated by workers and smallholders who engage creatively with this economy. The thesis shows that oil palm agribusiness forms a field of power that produces specific subjectivities which transform the meanings and constraints related to this mode of production. The first part of the thesis (chapters 2 and 3) identifies the objectives pursued by those who plan and envision oil palm agribusiness. I emphasise that oil palm agribusiness serves a number of often competing and shifting aims that range from capital accumulation to welfare provision. The second part of the thesis (chapters 4 and 5) demonstrates how the modes of visioning examined in the first part of the thesis produce a broad set of material conditions for populations. I analyse the ways in which these conditions are constantly reshaped by everyday power relations and articulated around the value of labour and land. Based on ethnographic fieldwork that I conducted in West Kalimantan, Lombok, and Nias, these chapters shed light on the lived geographies of labour and the livelihood strategies used by individuals and social groups in the space of oil palm agribusiness.

The thesis examines the social and economic implications of large-scale agribusiness expansion in Indonesia by analyzing how this economic system, as it is envisioned and materialised, reshapes livelihood possibilities. Based on original interviews with oil palm plantation workers, plantation company officials, smallholders, and on secondary research, this thesis scrutinises the forms of knowledge and practices that constitute large-scale oil palm agribusiness. While oil palm agribusiness produces economic opportunities for groups of individuals from certain social categories, it constrains the prospects of others in systematic ways. Oil palm agribusiness, as a project and as a set of practices, is deployed by a broad range of economic actors at different scales in an attempt to govern access to resources. However, the power of oil palm companies and investors over land, labour, and value is contested and negotiated by workers and smallholders who engage creatively with this economy. The thesis shows that oil palm agribusiness forms a field of power that produces specific subjectivities which transform the meanings and constraints related to this mode of production. The first part of the thesis (chapters 2 and 3) identifies the objectives pursued by those who plan and envision oil palm agribusiness. I emphasise that oil palm agribusiness serves a number of often competing and shifting aims that range from capital accumulation to welfare provision. The second part of the thesis (chapters 4 and 5) demonstrates how the modes of visioning examined in the first part of the thesis produce a broad set of material conditions for populations. I analyse the ways in which these conditions are constantly reshaped by everyday power relations and articulated around the value of labour and land. Based on ethnographic fieldwork that I conducted in West Kalimantan, Lombok, and Nias, these chapters shed light on the lived geographies of labour and the livelihood strategies used by individuals and social groups in the space of oil palm agribusiness.

In Limpopo Province of South Africa, poor soil fertility and low crop yields are serious problems facing resource poor smallholder farmers. A survey of over 60 farmers in 2 villages (Gabaza and GaKgoroshi) found that most of the smallholder farmers were women (68%), elderly (50% above 68 years of age) and had not attended school or only attended up to the primary level (80%). Very few farmers kept livestock (usually in small numbers) and most grew cereal and legume crops (on 1ha of land) for home consumption and livestock feed, with legumes being planted on 13% of the land. The study showed that 80% of farmers were not fully aware of the benefits of legumes in fixing nitrogen (N) and improving yield. A field study at the survey village of Gabaza found that the application of fertiliser N and grass mulch combination and fertiliser N plus guarbean mulch significantly increased plant height and maize shoot growth at 4 and 8 weeks after planting. However, when grass mulch was without N fertiliser, there was no increase in maize growth relative to the control (0N). A farming systems simulation model (Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator - APSIM) was used to simulate this field study as well as over the long-term (1971 to 2008). Simulation analysis showed poor average maize yield (<3000 kg ha⁻ ¹) with the application of grass residues even when used with 30 kg N fertiliser. However, the application of guarbean residues as mulch with or without N fertiliser and as green manure increased maize yields to >4000 kg ha⁻ ¹. Simulation showed that the grass mulch with or without the addition of N fertiliser reduced water stress and soil water evaporation but increased N stress during the reproductive phase of the crop in most seasons. When guarbean mulch was used as green manure by itself, or mulch plus N fertiliser, N stress was reduced but water stress and soil water evaporation were increased which could have been due to faster decomposition of legume mulch as compared to grass mulch. Addition of N fertiliser reduced N stress to maize but increased water stress and soil water evaporation similar to the guarbean mulch because of high soil evaporation. APSIM analysis clearly showed the importance of N x soil water interactions in determining maize growth and yield at Gabaza. Therefore, two studies were undertaken in the laboratory in Australia to determine the dynamics of carbon (C) and N where residues of different qualities [canola (C:N 43), wheat (26), pea (9) and mucuna (14)] were applied to clay loam (Tarlee) or sandy (Waikerie) soils. In experiment 1, where residues were incorporated into the two soils, the cumulative CO₂-C evolution for the wheat and canola treatments at the end of the incubation period were fairly similar but significantly higher than for pea, mucuna and the control. In general, the application of residues increased microbial biomass C more than the control, with highest increases up to 1.48 and 1.56 mg C g⁻ ¹ soil for canola and wheat in Tarlee soil, respectively and 0.82 mg C g⁻ ¹ soil for pea in Waikerie soil. Even though the Tarlee soil showed greater C release than Waikerie soil, the C turnover from the residues between the 2 soils was not significantly different except for pea residues. Canola and wheat residues were found to immobilise N whereas N content increased in both soils with the application of legumes (pea and mucuna). In experiment 2, mucuna, pea and wheat residues were either incorporated or applied as surface mulches on Waikerie soil. Initially the CO₂-C release was higher for incorporated than mulched residues and CO₂-C released was higher for pea residues. However, at the end of the incubation more CO₂-C was released with the application of wheat residue indicating differences between residue types in the pattern of soil respiration. Microbial biomass C was higher for incorporated than mulched residue treatments; pea residue showed the highest biomass C for incorporated (0.78 mg C g⁻ ¹ soil) whereas mucuna had the highest microbial biomass (0.11 mg C g⁻ ¹ soil) treatments. The method of residue application resulted in a significant difference in C turnover between residues, with pea residue showing significant increase in C utilisation than mucuna and wheat. The pea residues, which had the lowest C:N, increased soil mineral N more than other treatments in both incorporated and mulched treatments. Lower mineralisation of N observed in residues of high C:N ratio compared to the control could be due to immobilisation of N. Therefore, understanding the nutrient dynamics of different crop residues could play an important role in the management of residues in different soil types. Based on these results it can be concluded that legume residues have the potential to improve soil fertility and crop yields in dryland farmers’ fields in Limpopo. Extension programs aimed at increasing farmers’ knowledge of the benefits of N fixation by legumes may increase their adoption and thereby improve soil fertility and maize yield. / Thesis (M.Ag.Sc.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2010

The research draws on an ethnographic research and explores the everyday practice of collective action in Ugbawka in Enugu State by using interviews and participant observation. The study reveals that smallholder collective action is not best fitted into formal institutional arrangement but takes place within a complex and intricate process that involves interaction with diversity of institutions and actors. Equally, the interactions that occur amongst actors are mediated at the community level through interplay of socio-cultural and political factors. This study recognises and places emphasis on understanding of agency and the exercise of agency at the local level arguing that smallholder farmers are not robot but active individual who exercise their agency purposively or impulsively depending on conditions and the assets available at their disposition as well as their ability to navigate the intricate power dynamic inherent at local context. The thesis thus questioned the simplistic use of formal institutional collective action framework in smallholder collective action at the community level and argues that institutions are not static and do not determine outcomes but are informed by the prevailing conditions at the community level. The study emphasises the role of existing institutions and socially embedded principles in community governance and argues that actors should be the focus of analysis rather than the system in understanding smallholder collective action. The study concludes by advocating for further research that could explore the possibility of hybrid approach that accepts the advantages of both formal and informal institutional forms of smallholder collective action.

The new philanthropy is increasingly seen as a panacea and an alternative source of global development finance for rural development, especially in developing countries. The theoretical underpinning of the new philanthropy entails the idea that the private sector, led by philanthropists and civil society organisations in social policy issues can lead to more effective outcomes through partnership. The existing literature on the new philanthropy mainly focuses on its economic or commercial impact. This is particularly the case in the rural parts of Ghana; there has been very little research on the new philanthropy’s impact on the livelihoods of the poorest segments of society. Therefore, this research investigates the impact of new philanthropy on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Northern Ghana in order to fill the gap. The study employed ethnographic research, utilising qualitative techniques involving 20 stakeholders in philanthropy and livelihood affairs and 100 smallholder farmers. The research findings suggest that there is a significant relationship between philanthropic sponsored interventions in Ghana and an increase in smallholder farmers’ yields. The few farmers who purchased improved seeds and other agricultural inputs registered significant increases. However, this study identified some bottlenecks inhibiting access to agricultural inputs by smallholder farmers. Majority of smallholder farmers revealed that they could not afford them (seeds, chemical fertilizer and other inputs) despite the subsidies. Furthermore, rainfall variability gives rise to fluctuating food production from one season to another; meanwhile, there is a lack of strategy from philanthropic practitioners to address the variability in rainfall. Through philanthropy, other methods of faming such as irrigation farming agroecology, and permaculture could be exploited to the benefits of smallholder farmers. The outcomes of this study have policy implications for philanthropic practitioners. This study shows that the failure to involve farmers directly in decisions that affect their livelihoods is a major cause of livelihood interventionist programme failures in Ghana. Thus, this study argues that understanding the socioeconomic dynamics in the Northern Region and amongst the farmers should be an important part of policy formulation for philanthropic involvements seeking to improve livelihood of smallholder farmers. Lastly, the study called for a separate policy framework for philanthropy that would have a key objective of mobilising private philanthropic resources to support steady economic growth and sustainable development, dealing directly with recipients.

Smallholder pig farming is an important livestock activity in Mpumalanga. The aim of the current study was to investigate whether variation in agro-ecological climatic conditions differently impacts on the small-scale pig production systems in Mpumalanga province and to identify factors that influence production positively or negatively in the various agro-ecological zones. The study was conducted in Mpumalanga province of South Africa in three agro-ecological zones namely the highveld, the lowveld and the midveld. The study followed mixed methods approach, using qualitative and quantitative data. In total, 220 randomly selected smallholder pig farmers were interviewed face to face using pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. Data was entered into Microsoft Excel2007® spreadsheet, filtered and analysed using Stata v9 (Statacorp., Texas, USA) and Microsoft Excel2007® for frequency, herd-related variables; in addition, some hypothesis were tested using appropriate analytical methods (descriptive and correlation analyses). Associations between agricultural training, government assistance (material or financial) and thirteen herd and farmer-related variables were analysed using multivariable logistic regression model. A pairwise correlation was used where necessary and outputs were generated to associate certain variables and preferred methods including markets, market determinants, treatment methods for sick pigs, feed preference, body conditions of the sows and age at weaning. To integrate economic analyses, a partial budgeting combined with other turn on investment (ROI) model has developed in Microsoft Excel 2007® spreadsheet. The outcomes from the field data obtained including details from published materials were utilized to develop and validate the model. Economic feasibility and viability of a 10-sow unit were tested for a three-year farm operation. The results indicated that smallholder pig farming was predominated by males (64%), age group 51 years and above (54%), black Africans (98.6%) and approximately three-quarters of the smallholder farmers were classified as being poor to just below average. The majority (80%) of respondents had no prior pig husbandry training while few had (33%) received assistance from Department of Agriculture. In terms of stock, mixed breeds (89%) from exotic pigs were mostly kept and the majority (87%) of the farmers kept between 1 – 10 ws in their herds. Many farmers (75%) engaged in bio-security risky behaviour of buying auctioned-sourced boars, free-range boars and untested boars from neighbours and relatives. Few (17%) farmers practiced vaccination and only (10%) kept records of the pigs. The majority of the responses on pre-weaning mortality (50%) and post-weaning mortality (90%) were within acceptable range of 1-10% and 1-5% mortality rates respectively. The lead causes of mortality were weak piglets and crushing (46%), diarrhea (27%), poor management knowledge (19%) and malnutrition (16%). Fifty-eight percent farrowed ≤10 piglets/born/sow/litter, 44.2% practiced no weaning method, many fed leftovers alone (41.6%), 47% was using self-medication and 41% of the sows were in poor body conditions. It was also discovered that only 27% sold the porkers in less than 6 months of age and local slaughter/sold live (64.4%) was the most preferred market source. A pair-wise correlation showed links that between the feeding of commercial feeds and pigs in relatively good to very good body conditions. Poor body conditioned pigs were positively correlated with the feeding of swill alone. The economic models for a 10-sow unit proved that pig farming at that scale is unprofitable by feeding commercial feed. However, only through a combination of cooperative systems, benefits of economic of scale, reduction of pre-weaning mortalities, and structured government inputs can improve pig production profitable at this scale of production. In addition, agricultural training and government incentives will facilitate improved productivity in smallholder pig farms within the province / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

This thesis argues that the full impact of Agricultural Innovation Systems (AIS) driven research, that works to enhance not only agricultural production and productivity but also market linkages cannot be captured effectively using only microeconomic level studies; but rather requires the use of a combination of micro and macro-level analysis. This is because the innovation systems perspective entails the collaboration of different actors across the entire agricultural value chain. Therefore this study aimed to firstly quantify the degree to which AIS driven research impacts upon the livelihood outcomes of rural smallholder farmers. Second, the study aimed to determine the extent to which a combination of macro-economic and agricultural policy shocks impact upon household incomes in the maize-based farming system in Malawi; given macro-micro linkages as strengthened by AIS research. The first objective was tackled by using quasi-experimentation with propensity score matching to establish a valid counterfactual and single differencing to measure impact. The second objective was achieved by using a combination of quantitative and qualitative statistical and econometric tools to delve into the dynamics of the maize market at different levels and to develop a model that is capable of capturing the maize market dynamics. A multi-equation partial equilibrium model of the national maize market was therefore developed and linked in a top-down unidirectional manner to the local maize economy via a price-linkage equation. A non-behavioural arithmetic micro-accounting approach was adopted to estimate household incomes that were linked to the local economy, through which macroeconomic level maize price changes transmit. The results of the study empirically demonstrate that AIS driven research impacts positively upon the livelihood outcomes of rural households. This is demonstrated with participating households exhibiting statistically significant higher production outcomes (upland crop production, maize harvests, value of assets, and value of livestock); household incomes as well as human capital outcomes in some cropping seasons. In addition participating households also had much higher statistically significant fertilizer use prior to the implementation of the fertilizer subsidy program in the country; and statistically significant higher fertilizer use patterns for the first two cropping seasons following the implementation of the subsidy program. Participating households had greater linkages with the market economy which allowed them to take greater advantage of market incentives but which also made them more vulnerable to policy shocks. This study therefore shows that the analysis of the impacts of the paradigm shift in agricultural research towards an innovation system orientation cannot be contained at the household level, as this would lead to the formulation of inadequate policies that do not take into account the effects of greater market linkages of the rural households. Policy implications are that increasing production and productivity and linking farmers to markets may not in itself be enough for sustained livelihood improvement, as the resultant greater linkages to the market economy may be detrimental to household livelihood outcomes in the face of uncoordinated policies. In order for the paradigm shift in agricultural research towards an innovation systems perspective to be effective in sustaining an entrepreneurial culture in rural societies in Africa, there is need to foster the diversification out of agricultural enterprises for income, while supporting productivity improvements for food security. In addition any interventions should be implemented only after systematic analysis of the potential consequences of the resultant enhanced macro-micro linkages. This would help to ensure that there is no mismatch between policies and livelihood improvement strategies. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

The objective of this study is to investigate the role of transaction costs in determining market participation of smallholder farmers. It is expected that the identification of these transaction cost factors could assist in the formulation of policy interventions and/or institutional innovations to alleviate constraints on market participation and improve the ability of these small-scale farmers to become part of the commercial agricultural economy. Transaction costs differ between households due to asymmetries in access to assets, market information, extension services and remunerative markets. The study particularly investigated the factors contributing to different levels of transaction costs amongst households. The main hypothesis of the study is that small-scale farmers facing lower transaction costs will participate more in agricultural markets. Transaction costs reflect the character of the market, but are mainly embedded in the characteristics of individual households and their economic environment. In order to test the hypothesis, selectivity models identifying and testing significant factors related to market participation are applied to a survey of 157 farming households in the Northern Province. These households take part in the markets for horticulture, livestock, maize and other field crops. The selectivity models used involve two-step estimation similar to the Heckman's two-stage procedure. The study reveals that access to assets and market information in combination with particular household characteristics are important determinants of market participation. Among the assets of a household, a reasonably sized area of arable land tends to encourage participation in all markets, apart from the market for other field crops market. Ownership of livestock tends to stimulate livestock selling and also the level of maize sales. Ownership of arable land and livestock contribute to the economies of scale of production, which leads to lower transaction costs per unit output sold. Non-farm earnings only alleviate variable transaction costs in horticultural markets, but not in other field crops markets. Pensions discourage participation in high value commodities markets since they are viewed as alternative cash income. Indicators enhancing the role of information access include proximity to markets and contacts with the extension service. Proximity to markets reduces variable transaction costs in horticultural markets and fixed transaction costs in livestock markets. The study shows that every kilometre closer in proximity to markets, the horticultural sales increase by R152. Proximity and contact with extension services discourage participation in other field crops markets. Good road conditions reduce transaction costs for livestock and other field crops. The study also shows that in spite of bad road conditions some horticulture farmers still manage to market most of their products. A larger sized household tends to increase the transaction costs in marketing all commodities except for the other field crops. Female farmers tend to participate more in livestock markets as they own small livestock and poultry that are easy to sell, and keep livestock for livelihood purposes rather than for social status. On the other hand, female farmers appear to be constrained in their participation in horticultural markets, ostensibly due to problems of access to irrigation resources and cultural and legal perceptions. Older farmers with enough social capital are willing to sell, but in horticulture and maize they tend to sell lower quantities. The study raises issues which, when attended to, might reduce the transaction costs, particularly by enhancing access to information and providing endowments to farming households. Some constraints require direct policy measures, such as policies dealing with land reform, extension services, education and legal reforms, and then there are those that require indirect intervention and private sector involvement such as road networks and market availability. / Dissertation (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2002. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / Unrestricted

Smallholder farmers' efficiency has been measured by different scholars using different approaches. Both parametric and non-parametric approaches have been applied; each presenting unique results in some ways. The parametric approach uses econometric approaches to make assumptions about the error terms in the data generation process and also impose functional forms on the production functions. The nonparametric approaches neither impose any functional form nor make assumptions about the error terms. The bottom line of both approaches is to determine efficiency in production. In this study a parametric stochastic frontier approach is used to assess technical, allocative and economic efficiency from a sample of smallholder maize producers of Chongwe District, Zambia. This approach was chosen based on the fact that production among this group of farmers varies a great deal, and so the stochastic frontier attributes part of the variations to the random errors (which reflects measurement errors and statistical noise) and farm specific efficiency. Using a Cobb-Douglas frontier production function which exhibits self dual characteristics, technical efficiency scores for the sample of the smallholder maize producers are derived. With the parameter estimates(âi) obtained from the Cobb-Douglas stochastic production frontier, input prices (âi) and taking advantage of the self dual characteristics of the Cobb-Douglas, a cost function is derived. This forms the basis for calculating the farmers' allocative and economic efficiency. Results obtained from the study showed considerable technical, allocative and economic inefficiencies among smallholder maize producers. Technical Efficiency (TE) estimates range from 40.6 percent to 96.53 percent with a mean efficiency of 78.19 percent, while Allocative Efficiency (AE) estimates range from 33.57 to 92.14 percent with a mean of 61.81. The mean Economic Efficiency (EE) is 47.88 percent, with a minimum being 30 percent and a maximum of 79.26 percent. The results therefore indicate that inefficiency in maize production in Chongwe District is dominated by allocative and economic inefficiency. Additionally, in the two stage regression households characteristics: age; sex; education level; occupation; years in farming; land ownership; household size; access to extension and access to credit services; are regressed against technical efficiency scores using a logit function. Results obtained shows that land ownership, access to credit services, access to extension services, land ownership and education level of up to post primary (secondary and tertiary) have a positive influence on the households' technical efficiency. On the other hand, age of the household head; female headed household and lack of education (though not statistically significant at any confidence level) have a negative influence on this group of maize producers. In a similar two stage regression, access to extension services, membership to producer organisation, access to credit and disaster experienced on the farm such as floods, drought and hail, are regressed against AE. The result shows that access to extension services, access to credit services, membership to cooperatives and natural calamities affect AE. Results therefore show that there is a great deal of both allocative and economic inefficiency among smallholder maize farmers than there is technical inefficiency. To address these inefficiencies observed there is need to design policies that will ensure that environmental (e.g. poor land practices which lead to nutrient depletion from the soils), economic (e.g. high transport cost due to poor road infrastructure) and institutional issues (access to credit) are addressed. In other words, Government should help create credit facilities to provide affordable loans to this group of farmers. Additionally, there is need to improve extension systems to help educate farmers about better farming practices and other innovative technologies to further improve their efficiency in production. Issues of land ownership among this group of farmers needs to be addressed as this will not only raise confidence but will also ensure that their cost of production is reduced since there will be no need for payment of rental charges, and that farmers will adhere to good farming practices knowing they own title to land. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted