Thesis (M.Sc. (Agricultural Economics))--University of Limpopo, 2012 / Farmers in Polokwane Local Municipality produce many vegetables including beetroot, carrots, spinach, garlic, cabbage and butternut, which they mainly sell in informal local markets through speculating and hawking. Some sell to hawkers, who sell fresh produce from stalls in small markets and on the streets. Although there are a number of fresh produce markets operating successfully in Polokwane, such as Goseame Fresh Produce Market and Polokwane Fruit and Veg City, only a few smallholder farmers supply vegetables to these major markets. This research focused on providing information relevant to vegetable marketing in the province by identifying and analysing those farm and farmer characteristics influencing smallholder farmers’ decision to participate and utilise formal vegetable markets. The overall objective of the study was to examine farm and farmer characteristics of smallholder vegetable farmers that influence their decision to participate and utilise formal markets. The study was conducted in Polokwane Local Municipality and a sample size of 80 subsistence and emerging farmers was interviewed. STATA (2010) was used to analyse the data.Two approaches were used; the separated OLS and logit regression models and the Heckman selection model, although conclusions are based on the Heckman selection model regression results. We recommend the use of the Heckman selection model due to its limited bias compared to the other method. Results show that two variables; level of education and farmer occupation were positively and significantly associated with smallholder farmers’ decision to participate in the formal vegetable markets. Household size, tenure security and distance to the market had a significant negative influence on smallholder farmers’ decision to participate in the formal markets. Level of education, farm labour, hectares used and cost of transport were significantly and positively associated with the value of vegetables marketed in the formal markets. Gender of household head, member of a farmer group, farming experience, access to non-farm income and access to extension services had a significant negative impact on the value of vegetables marketed in the formal markets. In view of the research findings, several policy suggestions are made. These include capacitating farmers, provision of land for farming, establishment of depots and markets closer to the farmers, encouraging formation of farmer groups or organisations, increasing the number of extension visits to farmers, specialised services and encouraging commercialisation of smallholder agriculture in rural areas. / University of Limpopo Department of Agricultural Economics and Animal Production

The research aim was to gain a more detailed understanding of the operation of different key segments for fresh produce supply chains originating in the Highlands Provinces in Papua New Guinea (PNG). The research investigates a number of supply chain dimensions of effectiveness which include, value creation and integration of processes, logistics, quality, information, relationship/vertical integration and overall effectiveness. These were linked together in SC framework. Two potato chains were investigated, one formal, the other informal. The informal potato chain involves small holder farmers, input suppliers and local markets including kai bars and the urban market. The chain originates and ends within the Western Highlands Province. The formal potato chain has farmers, input suppliers, wholesaler/marker, transport companies (trucking and coastal shipping agents), supermarkets, hotels and kai bars. This chain originates in Mt Hagen, Western Highlands Province and ends in Port Moresby, National Capital District. The effectiveness of both the formal and informal chains was identified, and comparisons were made to see how each chain differed. The informal chain was found to have different problems to the formal chains. However, participants to both chains demonstrate a high entrepreneurial behavior. A key finding of the study was that the chains spread their risk by operating in multiple market segments and this can help to solve issues with variable quality. The marketers in each chain position themselves in these different market segments. It was clear from this work that focusing on functions and not the whole chain can lead to a distorted view of chain performance. For example, for the informal chain, a focus on logistics issues, particularly poor roads and problems with availability of seeds, can misrepresent the effectiveness of this chain. Therefore, it was concluded that it is important to look at the overall performance of each chain rather than looking specifically at particular chain functions in isolation.

In Limpopo Province of South Africa, poor soil fertility and low crop yields are serious problems facing resource poor smallholder farmers. A survey of over 60 farmers in 2 villages (Gabaza and GaKgoroshi) found that most of the smallholder farmers were women (68%), elderly (50% above 68 years of age) and had not attended school or only attended up to the primary level (80%). Very few farmers kept livestock (usually in small numbers) and most grew cereal and legume crops (on 1ha of land) for home consumption and livestock feed, with legumes being planted on 13% of the land. The study showed that 80% of farmers were not fully aware of the benefits of legumes in fixing nitrogen (N) and improving yield. A field study at the survey village of Gabaza found that the application of fertiliser N and grass mulch combination and fertiliser N plus guarbean mulch significantly increased plant height and maize shoot growth at 4 and 8 weeks after planting. However, when grass mulch was without N fertiliser, there was no increase in maize growth relative to the control (0N). A farming systems simulation model (Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator - APSIM) was used to simulate this field study as well as over the long-term (1971 to 2008). Simulation analysis showed poor average maize yield (<3000 kg ha⁻ ¹) with the application of grass residues even when used with 30 kg N fertiliser. However, the application of guarbean residues as mulch with or without N fertiliser and as green manure increased maize yields to >4000 kg ha⁻ ¹. Simulation showed that the grass mulch with or without the addition of N fertiliser reduced water stress and soil water evaporation but increased N stress during the reproductive phase of the crop in most seasons. When guarbean mulch was used as green manure by itself, or mulch plus N fertiliser, N stress was reduced but water stress and soil water evaporation were increased which could have been due to faster decomposition of legume mulch as compared to grass mulch. Addition of N fertiliser reduced N stress to maize but increased water stress and soil water evaporation similar to the guarbean mulch because of high soil evaporation. APSIM analysis clearly showed the importance of N x soil water interactions in determining maize growth and yield at Gabaza. Therefore, two studies were undertaken in the laboratory in Australia to determine the dynamics of carbon (C) and N where residues of different qualities [canola (C:N 43), wheat (26), pea (9) and mucuna (14)] were applied to clay loam (Tarlee) or sandy (Waikerie) soils. In experiment 1, where residues were incorporated into the two soils, the cumulative CO₂-C evolution for the wheat and canola treatments at the end of the incubation period were fairly similar but significantly higher than for pea, mucuna and the control. In general, the application of residues increased microbial biomass C more than the control, with highest increases up to 1.48 and 1.56 mg C g⁻ ¹ soil for canola and wheat in Tarlee soil, respectively and 0.82 mg C g⁻ ¹ soil for pea in Waikerie soil. Even though the Tarlee soil showed greater C release than Waikerie soil, the C turnover from the residues between the 2 soils was not significantly different except for pea residues. Canola and wheat residues were found to immobilise N whereas N content increased in both soils with the application of legumes (pea and mucuna). In experiment 2, mucuna, pea and wheat residues were either incorporated or applied as surface mulches on Waikerie soil. Initially the CO₂-C release was higher for incorporated than mulched residues and CO₂-C released was higher for pea residues. However, at the end of the incubation more CO₂-C was released with the application of wheat residue indicating differences between residue types in the pattern of soil respiration. Microbial biomass C was higher for incorporated than mulched residue treatments; pea residue showed the highest biomass C for incorporated (0.78 mg C g⁻ ¹ soil) whereas mucuna had the highest microbial biomass (0.11 mg C g⁻ ¹ soil) treatments. The method of residue application resulted in a significant difference in C turnover between residues, with pea residue showing significant increase in C utilisation than mucuna and wheat. The pea residues, which had the lowest C:N, increased soil mineral N more than other treatments in both incorporated and mulched treatments. Lower mineralisation of N observed in residues of high C:N ratio compared to the control could be due to immobilisation of N. Therefore, understanding the nutrient dynamics of different crop residues could play an important role in the management of residues in different soil types. Based on these results it can be concluded that legume residues have the potential to improve soil fertility and crop yields in dryland farmers’ fields in Limpopo. Extension programs aimed at increasing farmers’ knowledge of the benefits of N fixation by legumes may increase their adoption and thereby improve soil fertility and maize yield. / Thesis (M.Ag.Sc.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2010

<p><p>Smallholder coffee farmers in Tanzania today are facing a deep financial crises. This is the result of several different reasons but one important factor is the political and economic reforms Tanzania has experienced from being one of the strongest socialist states in Africa to one of the most liberalized. For smallholder coffee farmers this has meant dealing with difficult challenges such as big fluctuations in the coffee bean price but it has also meant opportunities. The purpose for this study is to see if, and to what extent coffee tourism can help in community development and be a leverage to the living standard for people who are dealing with this business. In order to do this the authors have conducted a minor field study in the northern part of Tanzania. We argue that coffee tourism can increase and help stabilize income for smallholder coffee farmers through diversification, contribute to community development and work as a counter-force to the structural changes and the crisis that rural areas in Tanzania are dealing with today.</p></p>

This thesis consists of a summary and four self-contained papers. Paper [I] examines whether the implementation of a social safety net programme in Ethiopia has affected the value, risk and composition of farmers‟ crop portfolios. The empirical analysis suggests that the value and risk of the crop portfolio have not been altered due to the programme. However, the programme seems to have brought about some changes in the land allocated to different crops. Paper [II] studies how a social safety net affects farmers‟ (dis)investments in productive assets. More specifically, it studies how the Productive Safety Net Programme in Ethiopia has changed livestock and tree holdings. The results indicate no significant effect on livestock holdings, but a significant increase in tree holdings. Paper [III] investigates if there is a problem of adverse selection in formal microlending in rural Bangladesh. The results indicate that farmers who only borrow formally have a shadow price of capital that is substantially higher than the average informal interest rate. This suggests that farmers that only borrow formally are perceived as poor credit risks by informal lenders. Paper [IV] explores the economic incentives surrounding the cultivation of opium poppy in Afghanistan. Specifically, it examines the impact of eradication policies when opium is used as a means of obtaining credit, and when the crops are produced in sharecropping arrangements. The results indicate that both these features are likely to affect the outcome of eradication policies.

Landscape scale quantification enables farmers to pool resources and expertise. However, the problem remains of how to quantify these gains. This article considers current greenhouse gas (GHG) quantification methods that can be used in a landscape scale analysis in terms of relevance to areas dominated by smallholders in developing countries. In landscape scale carbon accounting frameworks, measurements are an essential element. Sampling strategies need careful design to account for all pools/fluxes and to ensure judicious use of resources. Models can be used to scale-up measurements and fill data gaps. In recent years a number of accessible models and calculators have been developed which can be used at the landscape scale in developing country areas. Some are based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) method and others on dynamic ecosystem models. They have been developed for a range of different purposes and therefore vary in terms of accuracy and usability. Landscape scale assessments of GHGs require a combination of ground sampling, use of data from census, remote sensing (RS) or other sources and modelling. Fitting of all of these aspects together needs to be performed carefully to minimize uncertainties and maximize the use of scarce resources. This is especially true in heterogeneous landscapes dominated by smallholders in developing countries.

Smallholder coffee farmers in Tanzania today are facing a deep financial crises. This is the result of several different reasons but one important factor is the political and economic reforms Tanzania has experienced from being one of the strongest socialist states in Africa to one of the most liberalized. For smallholder coffee farmers this has meant dealing with difficult challenges such as big fluctuations in the coffee bean price but it has also meant opportunities. The purpose for this study is to see if, and to what extent coffee tourism can help in community development and be a leverage to the living standard for people who are dealing with this business. In order to do this the authors have conducted a minor field study in the northern part of Tanzania. We argue that coffee tourism can increase and help stabilize income for smallholder coffee farmers through diversification, contribute to community development and work as a counter-force to the structural changes and the crisis that rural areas in Tanzania are dealing with today.

This study investigates the case of a Zambian institution providing credit for smallholder agribusiness commercialization and compares this lender’s model with the major microfinance institutions, to identify specific mechanisms employed by the lender and how these have been adapted to suit seasonal agricultural production credit requirements. Econometric models are developed to examine the influence of key economic factors such as nominal and real interest rates, loan fees, and loan term on the supply of credit by the lender. Other important factors considered relevant in the lender’s market include availability of contract markets for financed production and the type of borrower (cooperative or investor-owned agribusinesses). The study uses loan-level and firm-level loan data aggregated from an electronic loan database of individual loan files kept by the lender. Cross sectional data over three years (2005 – 2007) are used in the study. The study finds that loan fees, loan term and availability of contract markets to borrowers are the key determinants of credit supply. In addition, the study finds that interest rates do not significantly influence the lender’s credit supply decisions, a finding that is consistent with literature on credit rationing in markets with asymmetric information. The study finds no evidence of economies of scale benefit to the lender being passed along to borrowers through lower loan fees. The study contributes to the literature and development needs of agricultural lenders and smallholder agribusinesses in Zambia through the analysis of different factors that influence the lender’s credit supply decisions.

Problemstellung: Die frühzeitige Erkennung von Störungen vor ihrer klinischen Manifestation ist das Grundanliegen der Prophylaxe. Da besonders die Krankheiten des Fettmobilisationsyndroms fütterungs- und damit stoffwechselbedingt sind, besitzt deren frühzeitige Feststellung durch Stoffwechselkontrollen im peripartalen Zeitraum herausragende Bedeutung. Ziel dieser Analyse war es, Erfahrungen für Indikationen, Durchführung und Ergebnisse mehrjähriger Stoffwechselkontrollen in kleinen und mittelgroßen Betrieben auszuwerten und zu dokumentieren. Dazu wurden die von einer tierärztlichen Gemeinschaftspraxis im Emsland betreuten Betriebe anamnestisch charakterisiert, die Indikationen für Untersuchungen, die Kontrollzeiträume in Laktations- und Jahreszeitverlauf sowie in der jährlichen Abfolge erfasst, die Art und Häufigkeit der untersuchten Parameter sowie ihre klinische Bedeutung insgesamt, betriebsweise sowie z.T. für einzelne Kühe bei Mehrfachkontrollen analysiert. Erfasst wurden auch die von den Landwirten eingeleiteten Maßnahmen sowie die Ergebnisse bezüglich des Gesundheitszustands der Kühe. Versuchsanordnung: Die Anamnesen von 53 Betrieben wurden per Fragebögen erhoben. Aus 60 Betrieben flossen 840 Proben aus 122 Einsendungen mit 793 Blutserumproben und 47 Harnproben von Oktober 2006 bis März 2011 in diese Untersuchung ein. Die Kühe wurden nach Laktationsstadium in die Gruppen ante partum (a. p.), 1. Woche (Wo) post partum (p. p.), 2 - 8 Wo p. p, 9 - 14 Wo p. p, mehr als 100 Tage p. p. und Färsen eingeteilt. Die Parameterauswahl trafen die behandelnden Hoftierärzte mit den Landwirten. Untersucht wurden im Blutserum in absteigender Zahl: Freie Fettsäuren (FFS), ß-Hydroxybutyrat (BHB), Se, Harnstoff, Cu, Ca, anorganisches Phosphat (Pi), Bilirubin, CK, Cholesterol, GLDH, GGT, ß-Carotin, Fe, AST, Total-Protein, Albumin, Na, K, Cl, Mg, Glucose, Gallensäuren, Zn, AP, Kreatinin, Mn, Coeruloplasmin sowie die Trolox Äquivalente Antioxidative Kapazität (TEAC). Harnparameter sind selten untersucht worden. Die Betriebe sind fast ausschließlich Milcherzeugerbetriebe und hatten zwischen 24 und 270 Kühe überwiegend der Rasse Deutsche Holsteins mit einer mittleren Milchleistung von 8718 kg pro Jahr. Ergebnisse: Die häufigsten Merzungsgründe waren schlechte Fruchtbarkeit, Klauen- und Gliedmaßen- sowie Eutererkrankungen. Die Gründe für die Stoffwechselkontrollen waren die Abfrage des aktuellen Stoffwechselstatus sowie das vermehrte Auftreten von Fruchtbarkeitsproblemen, Festliegern, Ketosen und Euterproblemen. Maßnahmen nach der Stoffwechselauswertung waren überwiegend Futterumstellungen sowie die Substitution von Mineralstoffen. Die Einsendungsschwerpunkte lagen jeweils im ersten Jahresquartal. Die mittlere Probenan-zahl/Einsendung sank im Untersuchungszeitraum von 9,7 auf 5,1 ab. Im Durchschnitt wurden 9,9 Parameter/Einsendung untersucht. Bei annähernd 80 % der Einsendungen gaben 40 % bis 70 % der Parameter einen Hinweis auf eine Gesundheitsgefährdung des Bestandes. Im Laktationsverlauf hatten die FFS a. p. mit 56,7 % die häufigsten Abweichungen. Nach der Kalbung bis 8 Wo p. p. sanken sie auf 36 % bis 38 % und im weiteren Verlauf auf < 11 % ab. Die BHB-Abweichungen waren gegensätzlich und lagen in der gesamten Laktation über 68 %. Die FFS-, BHB- sowie Bilirubin-Medianwerte stiegen in der 1. Wo p. p auf 438 μmol/l, 0,86 mmol/l sowie 4,3 μmol/l und sanken dann kontinuierlich im Laktationsverlauf wieder ab. Die Cholesterol-Medianwerte sanken in der 1. Wo p. p. auf 2,16 mmol/l ab und stiegen im Laktationsverlauf bis auf 3,93 mmol/l an. 40 % bis 50 % der Kühe hatten in der Mittel- und Spätlaktation einen Harnstoffüberschuss. Ca und Pi hatten in der 1. Wo p. p. den typischen Konzentrationsabfall auf 2,27 bzw. 1,88 mmol/l, gefolgt von einem kontinuierlichem Anstieg in der Laktation. Hypocalzämien traten zu 13,2 % in der 1. Wo p. p. auf, Hyperphosphatämien überwiegen a. p. mit 24,9 % und in der 1. Wo p. p. mit 22,4 %. Die CK-Mediane betrugen in der 1. Wo p. p. 175,6 U/l; a.p. sowie ab 1. Wo p. p. waren sie > 100 U/I. Ähnlich verhielten sich die CK-Abweichungen mit 60,4 % a. p. und 73,6 % bis 90,9 % ab der 2. Wo p. p. Die CK-Aktivitäten der Färsen sind zu 100 % > 100 U/I. Cu-Mangelzustände wurden bei 12,5 % a. p. und 14,8 % der Kühe in der Spätlaktation beobachtet. Färsen zeigten mit 21,3 % am häufigsten Cu-Unterversorgungen. A. p. bestand zu 20,6 % Se-Unterversorgungen, p. p. hingegen zu 30,1 bis 37% eine Se-Überversorgung. ß-Carotin-Mangelzustände betrugen a. p. 50 % und p. p. 47,1 – 77,8 %. Die TEAC zeigte bei keinen Kontrollen einen Antioxidantienmangel an. Bei den meisten Parametern waren z.T. signifikante Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Untersuchungsjahren festzustellen. Bei den FFS und ß-Carotin bestand ein ansteigender Trend an Abweichungen, ein sinkender Trend bei Pi- Abweichungen. In den sechs Kontrolljahren konnte bei 80 % der Betriebe eine Verbesserung der Stoffwechselsituation dokumentiert werden. Bei den Parametern Ca, Pi, Harnstoff, Cholesterol, BHB, Bilirubin, CK und Cu stieg die Zahl physiologischer Werte im Einsendungsverlauf an; nur bei FFS und Se war eine Abnahme zu verzeichnen. Schlussfolgerungen: In kleinen und mittelgroßen Betrieben lieferten systematische Stoffwechselanalysen im peripartalen Zeitraum frühzeitig kausale Hinweise für die häufigsten Krankheiten und Merzungsursachen. Als informative Parameter bewährten sich Indikatoren des Energiestoffwechsels FSS, BHB und Bilirubin, weiterhin Harnstoff, das Se sowie das ß-Carotin. Die systematischen Analysen trugen im Analysenzeitraum zu Verbesserungen in den Betrieben bei. In kleineren Betrieben haben peripartale Einzeltieranalysen besonderen Informationswert über den Herdenzustand.

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