Composite materials are increasingly used in aerospace, underwater, and automotive structures. Their use in structural applications is dictated by the outstanding strength and stiffness while being lightweight in addition to their flexibility in tailoring the desired performance in the design of structures. The present study focuses on the failure analysis and shape control of smart composite laminates under coupled hygrothermal, electric and mechanical stimuli. A linear thermo-electro-elastic constitutive model for transversely isotropic materials is used for each ply in the composite laminates. The first-ply failure and ultimate laminate failure criteria of composite laminates are used to predict the failure stress and mode of the composite laminate where we incorporate various commonly known macroscopic failure criteria including Tsai-Hill, Tsai Wu, maximum stress and maximum strain for each lamina. We study the use of piezoelectric materials such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and piezoelectric fiber composites as actuators for controlling deformation in composite laminates; this study focuses on bending deformation. The purpose is to minimize unwanted deformation, such as the one due to hygrothermal effect, by applying counter deformation to avoid failure in such composite laminates. In addition, analysis based on the Classical Laminate Theory (CLT) is performed for Carbon/Epoxy (AS4/3501-6) thin laminate with stacking sequence [90/45/-45/0]s under uniaxial and biaxial in-plane loading. One of the major types of failure in smart structures is caused by debonding of the actuator from the host structure which is caused by the high stress discontinuity between the interface of the host structure and the active part. By using embedded actuators, such that the active part is incorporated into one of the layers of the composite beam during the manufacturing process, the stress concentration effect can be reduced while obtaining similar actuation values. Moreover, a control algorithm is proposed that enables the composite laminate to overcome the failure load by using piezoelectric materials where a counter electric voltage could be applied which prevents failure from occurring. Furthermore, computer software called “Hyper Composite” was developed using Action Script® and Adobe Flash® in order to perform stress and failure analysis for general composite laminates. Several carpet plots were also generated to show the interacting behavior of two independent variables such as Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, shear modulus and the coefficient of thermal and moisture expansion at different percentile constitutions for the laminate different plies. This computer software is useful for estimating overall properties of smart composite laminates in designing smart composite structures.

Shape memory materials have been known for many years to possess the unique ability of memorising their shape at some temperature. If these materials are pre-strained into the plastic range, they tend to recover their original un-strained shapes via phase transformation when subjected to heat stimulation. In recent years, this shape memory effect (SME) or strain recovery capability has been explored in aerospace structures for actuating the real-time movement of structural components. Among all the shape memory materials, the nickel-titanium based shape memory alloy (SMA) has by far received the most attention because of its high recovery capabilities. Since SMAs are usually drawn into the form of wires, they are particularly suitable for being integrated into fibre-reinforced composite structures. These integrated composite structures with SMA wires are thus called smart adaptive structures. To achieve the SME, these wires are normally embedded in the host composite structures. In returning to their unstrained shape upon heat application, they tend to exert internal stresses on the host composite structures in which they are embedded. This action could result in a controlled change in shape of the structural components. Although there has been a significant amount of research dedicated to characterising and modelling the SME of SMA wires, little experimental work had been done to offer an in-depth understanding of the mechanical behaviour of these smart adaptive polymeric composite structures. This project examined the deflection and shape change of carbon/epoxy and glass/epoxy cantilever beams through heating and cooling of internal nitinol SMA wires/strips. The heat damage mechanism and cyclic behaviour are major factors in the operation of such a system and need to be clearly understood in order to develop and gain confidence for the possible implementation of future smart actuating systems. Therefore, the objectives of the proposed research were to investigate (i) effect of embedding SMA, wires on mechanical properties of host composite, (ii) assessment of single-cycle and multiple-cycle actuation performance of smart beams, and (iii) thermal effects of excessive heat on the surrounding composite matrix.

The advent of additive manufacturing has opened up new frontiers in developing metal structures that can have complex geometries, composite structures made of dissimilar metals, and metal structures with embedded sensing and actuation capabilities. These types of structures are possible with ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM); a novel manufacturing technology that combines additive manufacturing through the ultrasonic welding of thin metal foils with computer numerical control (CNC) milling. However, the process suffers from a critical limitation, i.e., a range of build heights within which bonding between a foil and the substrate cannot be originated. <br>This work has two research objectives, the first is a fundamental understanding of the complex dynamic interaction between the substrate and ultrasonic horn, or sonotrode. Specifically, it focuses on the effects that specific modes of vibration have on the dynamic response of the substrate. The second objective is to utilize the UAM process to create metal structures with an embedded sensor that can detect contact or impact. In addressing the first objective, a semi-analytical model was developed to determine the response to three forcing descriptions that approximate the interfacial friction between the foil and substrate induced by sonotrode compression and excitation. Several observations can be seen in the results: as the height increases the dominant modes of vibration change, the modes of vibration excited also change during a single weld cycle as the sonotrode travels across the length of the substrate, and finally the three forcing models do not have a significant impact on the substrate response trends with height and during the weld cycle. <br>In addressing the second objective, three prototypes were created by embedding a triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) sensor within an AL3003 metal-matrix. TENGs utilize contact electrification between surfaces of dissimilar materials, typically polymers, combined with electrostatic induction to generate electrical energy from a mechanical excitation. The sensors demonstrate a discernible response over a 1-5 Hz frequency range. In addition, the sensors have a linear relationship between output voltage and a mechanically applied load, and have the ability to sense contact through both touch and due to an impacting object.

O presente trabalho visa o desenvolvimento de uma formulação de um elemento finito de casca com capacidade de prever o comportamento de materiais compósitos inteligentes. Além disso, tem-se a implementação da referida formulação junto ao pacote comercial de elementos finitos Abaqus&trade;, através de sub-rotinas em Fortran via sua ferramenta UEL (User Element). De posse da formulação implementada, realiza-se a avaliação de suas potencialidades e limitações através de estudos de casos. Para selecionar de forma criteriosa a formulação a ser avaliada, executa-se, inicialmente, uma revisão bibliográfica aprofundada sobre trabalhos relevantes na área. Posteriormente apresenta-se a fundamentação teórica da formulação selecionada, bem como uma discussão acerca dos diferentes modelos matemáticos existentes para piezeletricidade linear. Há também uma descrição sobre modelos de casca e do comportamento mecânico de materiais laminados. Além disso, tem-se que as particularidades existentes devido ao acoplamento piezoelétrico e a utilização da ferramenta UEL são discutidas. A metodologia utilizada no trabalho é abordada, evidenciando-se as diferentes etapas empregadas. Por fim, sete estudos de casos são investigados, comparando os resultados providos pelo elemento implementado via UEL com resultados da literatura, bem como, com resultados de experimentos realizados pelo Grupo de Estruturas Aeronáuticas da EESC/USP. Concluindo o trabalho, perspectivas futuras de novos projetos de pesquisas, fruto do presente trabalho, são apresentadas. Por fim, com base na análise dos resultados, conclui-se que a formulação proposta é capaz de simular o comportamento de estruturas fabricadas a partir de materiais compósitos inteligentes. No entanto, trabalhos futuros devem ser realizados com o intuito de melhorar a precisão dos resultados obtidos via UEL, sem gerar um elevado custo computacional. / The present work aims at the development of a shell finite element formulation in order to simulate the behavior of smart composite materials. Furthermore, the referred formulation is implemented within the commercial finite element package Abaqus&trade; by using Fortran subroutines through its UEL (User Element) tool. Based on the implemented formulation, case studies are used to evaluate its potentialities and limitations. A deep review of works in the area is carried out in order to perform a careful selection of the finite element formulation, which is implemented. After that, the theory for the selected formulation is presented, as well as a discussion of the different existing mathematical models for linear piezoelectricity. Also, a description of the mechanical behavior of laminated shells is shown. Besides, the particularities of the piezoelectric coupling and its implementations by using UEL tool are discussed. The used methodology is addressed, detailing its phases. Finally, seven case studies are investigated, comparing results provided by simulations by using the implemented element with results found in the literature and experimental results from experiments performed by the Aeronautical Structures Group of the EESC/USP. In conclusion, based on the analysis of the aforementioned results, it is established that the proposed formulation is capable of simulating the behavior of smart composite structures. However, future works should be introduced to enhance the precision of the solutions obtained through the UEL tool, without increasing the inherent computational cost.

This thesis work was conducted in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT) and was submitted towards the partial fulfilment of the Masters Degree in Technology: Mechanical Engineering. / Recent years have witnessed a tremendous growth and significant advances in “smart” composites and “smart” composite structures. These smart composites integrate active elements such as sensors and actuators into a host structure to create improved or new functionalities through a clever choice of the active elements and/or a proper design of the structure. Such composites are able to sense a change in the environment and make a useful response by using an external feedback control system. Depending on their applications, smart composites usually make use of either the joint properties of the structure or the properties of the individual elements within the composites. The accumulation in the understanding of materials science and the rapid developments in computational capabilities have provided an even wider framework for the implementation of multi-functionality in composites and make “smart” composites “intelligent”.

O presente trabalho visa o desenvolvimento de uma formulação de um elemento finito de casca com capacidade de prever o comportamento de materiais compósitos inteligentes. Além disso, tem-se a implementação da referida formulação junto ao pacote comercial de elementos finitos Abaqus&trade;, através de sub-rotinas em Fortran via sua ferramenta UEL (User Element). De posse da formulação implementada, realiza-se a avaliação de suas potencialidades e limitações através de estudos de casos. Para selecionar de forma criteriosa a formulação a ser avaliada, executa-se, inicialmente, uma revisão bibliográfica aprofundada sobre trabalhos relevantes na área. Posteriormente apresenta-se a fundamentação teórica da formulação selecionada, bem como uma discussão acerca dos diferentes modelos matemáticos existentes para piezeletricidade linear. Há também uma descrição sobre modelos de casca e do comportamento mecânico de materiais laminados. Além disso, tem-se que as particularidades existentes devido ao acoplamento piezoelétrico e a utilização da ferramenta UEL são discutidas. A metodologia utilizada no trabalho é abordada, evidenciando-se as diferentes etapas empregadas. Por fim, sete estudos de casos são investigados, comparando os resultados providos pelo elemento implementado via UEL com resultados da literatura, bem como, com resultados de experimentos realizados pelo Grupo de Estruturas Aeronáuticas da EESC/USP. Concluindo o trabalho, perspectivas futuras de novos projetos de pesquisas, fruto do presente trabalho, são apresentadas. Por fim, com base na análise dos resultados, conclui-se que a formulação proposta é capaz de simular o comportamento de estruturas fabricadas a partir de materiais compósitos inteligentes. No entanto, trabalhos futuros devem ser realizados com o intuito de melhorar a precisão dos resultados obtidos via UEL, sem gerar um elevado custo computacional. / The present work aims at the development of a shell finite element formulation in order to simulate the behavior of smart composite materials. Furthermore, the referred formulation is implemented within the commercial finite element package Abaqus&trade; by using Fortran subroutines through its UEL (User Element) tool. Based on the implemented formulation, case studies are used to evaluate its potentialities and limitations. A deep review of works in the area is carried out in order to perform a careful selection of the finite element formulation, which is implemented. After that, the theory for the selected formulation is presented, as well as a discussion of the different existing mathematical models for linear piezoelectricity. Also, a description of the mechanical behavior of laminated shells is shown. Besides, the particularities of the piezoelectric coupling and its implementations by using UEL tool are discussed. The used methodology is addressed, detailing its phases. Finally, seven case studies are investigated, comparing results provided by simulations by using the implemented element with results found in the literature and experimental results from experiments performed by the Aeronautical Structures Group of the EESC/USP. In conclusion, based on the analysis of the aforementioned results, it is established that the proposed formulation is capable of simulating the behavior of smart composite structures. However, future works should be introduced to enhance the precision of the solutions obtained through the UEL tool, without increasing the inherent computational cost.

O presente trabalho correlacionou diversas funções de respostas em frequência (FRF) de juntas do tipo simples, coladas e fabricadas em titânio-compósito (resina epóxi reforçada por fibra de carbono). As FRFs produzidas foram investigadas (experimental e numericamente) tanto para juntas intactas como para juntas com falha, estas provenientes, por exemplo, do uso em serviço ou então, com resultado do processamento inadequado de um reparo. Com base nessas análises buscou-se, portanto, subsidiar o desenvolvimento de um sistema de monitoramento estrutural a partir da avaliação de seu comportamento dinâmico, medido pelo uso de pastilhas piezelétricas integradas à estrutura. Para que o respectivo objetivo fosse alcançado. Num primeiro momento, a fim de compreender os fenômenos envolvidos, conduziu-se a atividade de revisão bibliográfica, que baseada na consulta dos trabalhos mais recentes publicados sobre a análise de juntas coladas empregando abordagem numérica, analítica e/ou experimental. Em seguida, foram desenvolvidos modelos computacionais preliminares com solução via Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF), a fim de se obter as diretrizes mínimas para uma proposta de fabricação das juntas híbridas (metal-compósito). Tal estratégia permitiu reduzir efeitos indesejados, que pudessem comprometer os resultados experimentais. Em posse dos resultados computacionais fabricou-se amostras de juntas metal-compósito com e sem dano. Num primeiro momento, foram realizadas análises numéricas através do desenvolvimento de modelos computacionais (com solução via MEF) das juntas, metal-compósito, monitoradas por transdutores piezelétricos. Em seguida, as juntas híbridas foram submetidas a ensaios experimentais dinâmicos, empregando técnicas de monitoramento com auxílio de transdutores piezelétricos e acelerômetros. Por fim, avaliaram-se potencialidades e limitações dos modelos computacionais desenvolvidos, através de estudos de caso, comparando os resultados experimentais com os resultados numéricos. / The herein proposed research has correlates Frequency Response Functions (FRF) of several hybrid titanium-composite (epoxy resin reinforced with carbon fiber) single lap bonded joints. The FRFs were investigated (numerically and experimentally) for joints with and without failures which may arise as the result of in service events or bad maintenance practices. The result of the dynamic analyses provided by the FRFs has substantiated the proposal of a damage detection method using piezoelectric elements capable which are capable to detect minor alterations on the dynamic behavior of the joint. In order to reach the proposed objective, the first action towards the given objective was study the problem through a bibliographic revision of the research subject, for this purpose the most recent published works related to numerical, analytical and experimental analyses of bonded joints were thoroughly evaluated and segregated. Afterwards, models of the joints were proposed using Finite Element Models (FEM) to obtain a preliminary result of the joints behavior to eventually substantiate the manufacturing processes, reducing the amount of material, time and cost of the experiments. Based upon the results of the FEM the coupons were manufactured with and without damages, using the methods and techniques available on the maintenance field for restoration of composite elements. Before proceed to the comparison between the modeled and experimental results, additional models were proposed using previous work\'s results to get results from the piezoelectric monitored joints. Afterwards, all experimental tests were conducted using accelerometers and piezoelectric elements to provide the means through it the advantages and drawbacks of the proposed monitoring method could be checked, by comparison between the experimental and modeled results.

O presente trabalho correlacionou diversas funções de respostas em frequência (FRF) de juntas do tipo simples, coladas e fabricadas em titânio-compósito (resina epóxi reforçada por fibra de carbono). As FRFs produzidas foram investigadas (experimental e numericamente) tanto para juntas intactas como para juntas com falha, estas provenientes, por exemplo, do uso em serviço ou então, com resultado do processamento inadequado de um reparo. Com base nessas análises buscou-se, portanto, subsidiar o desenvolvimento de um sistema de monitoramento estrutural a partir da avaliação de seu comportamento dinâmico, medido pelo uso de pastilhas piezelétricas integradas à estrutura. Para que o respectivo objetivo fosse alcançado. Num primeiro momento, a fim de compreender os fenômenos envolvidos, conduziu-se a atividade de revisão bibliográfica, que baseada na consulta dos trabalhos mais recentes publicados sobre a análise de juntas coladas empregando abordagem numérica, analítica e/ou experimental. Em seguida, foram desenvolvidos modelos computacionais preliminares com solução via Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF), a fim de se obter as diretrizes mínimas para uma proposta de fabricação das juntas híbridas (metal-compósito). Tal estratégia permitiu reduzir efeitos indesejados, que pudessem comprometer os resultados experimentais. Em posse dos resultados computacionais fabricou-se amostras de juntas metal-compósito com e sem dano. Num primeiro momento, foram realizadas análises numéricas através do desenvolvimento de modelos computacionais (com solução via MEF) das juntas, metal-compósito, monitoradas por transdutores piezelétricos. Em seguida, as juntas híbridas foram submetidas a ensaios experimentais dinâmicos, empregando técnicas de monitoramento com auxílio de transdutores piezelétricos e acelerômetros. Por fim, avaliaram-se potencialidades e limitações dos modelos computacionais desenvolvidos, através de estudos de caso, comparando os resultados experimentais com os resultados numéricos. / The herein proposed research has correlates Frequency Response Functions (FRF) of several hybrid titanium-composite (epoxy resin reinforced with carbon fiber) single lap bonded joints. The FRFs were investigated (numerically and experimentally) for joints with and without failures which may arise as the result of in service events or bad maintenance practices. The result of the dynamic analyses provided by the FRFs has substantiated the proposal of a damage detection method using piezoelectric elements capable which are capable to detect minor alterations on the dynamic behavior of the joint. In order to reach the proposed objective, the first action towards the given objective was study the problem through a bibliographic revision of the research subject, for this purpose the most recent published works related to numerical, analytical and experimental analyses of bonded joints were thoroughly evaluated and segregated. Afterwards, models of the joints were proposed using Finite Element Models (FEM) to obtain a preliminary result of the joints behavior to eventually substantiate the manufacturing processes, reducing the amount of material, time and cost of the experiments. Based upon the results of the FEM the coupons were manufactured with and without damages, using the methods and techniques available on the maintenance field for restoration of composite elements. Before proceed to the comparison between the modeled and experimental results, additional models were proposed using previous work\'s results to get results from the piezoelectric monitored joints. Afterwards, all experimental tests were conducted using accelerometers and piezoelectric elements to provide the means through it the advantages and drawbacks of the proposed monitoring method could be checked, by comparison between the experimental and modeled results.