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Au cours des dernières décennies, les environnements virtuels se sont de plus en plus répandus et sont largement utilisés dans de nombreux domaines comme, par exemple, le prototypage, la formation à l’utilisation de différents outils/appareils, l’aide à la réalisation de tâches difficiles, etc. L’interaction avec la réalité virtuelle, ainsi que le retour d’effort, sont assurés par des interfaces haptiques. En général, ces systèmes sont affectés par des retards de communication et de traitement, entraînant une détérioration des performances. Dans cette thèse, une étude complète des méthodes existantes, les outils théoriques et de nouvelles solutions sont proposés dans le cadre de l’haptique. Dans un premier temps, une étude comparative, fondée sur des résultats expérimentaux obtenus sur un système haptique à un degré de liberté, met en évidence les avantages et les inconvénients des algorithmes de commande les plus classiques, transposés du domaine de la téléopération à l’haptique. Sont ensuite examinés les outils théoriques nécessaires à l’analyse de la stabilité des systèmes à retard selon différentes situations, tenant compte des limites physiques des plates-formes expérimentales considérées. En plus du cas classique du retard constant, des incertitudes sont également considérées et modélisées par plusieurs types de distributions (distribution uniforme, normale et gamma avec gap). Finalement, pour surmonter les inconvénients liés aux retards, deux nouvelles approches sont proposées. Tout d’abord, la commande de type prédicteur de Smith est reprise et une solution spécifique pour les systèmes haptiques est mise en oeuvre. L’idée principale consiste à introduire dans le prédicteur de Smith les forces liées à l’environnement en utilisant les informations complémentaires issues de la réalité virtuelle, en ce qui concerne les distances entre l’objet virtuel piloté et d’autres objets présents dans la scène. Pour surmonter la perte de performances induite par l’utilisation d’un gain fixe dans les correcteurs, commun à toutes les situations (mouvements libres ou restreints), la seconde approche propose un correcteur Proportionnel Dérivé incluant une stratégie de séquencement de gain en fonction de la distance jusqu’à une éventuelle collision. Les deux approches sont validées expérimentalement sur une plateforme haptique à trois degrés de liberté, pour différents scénarios de complexité progressive, partant de situations avec des mouvements simples - libre et restreints, des contacts avec des objets en mouvement, pour arriver à des situations plus complexes - boîte virtuelle avec des murs fixes ou mobiles. / During the last decades, virtual environments have become very popular and are largely used in many domains as, for example, prototyping, trainings for different devices, assistance in completing difficult tasks, etc. The interaction with the virtual reality, as well as the feedback force, is assured by haptic interfaces. Generally, such systems are affected by communication and processing time-delays, resulting in a deterioration of performances. In this thesis, a complete study of the existing methods, as well as theoretical tools and new solutions, are proposed for the haptic framework. First, a comparative study, based on the experimental results obtained on a 1-dof haptic system, highlights the advantages and drawbacks of the most common control algorithms ported from teleoperation to haptics. Next, the theoretical tools needed in analyzing the stability of the delayed systems in different situations, as well as the physical limitations of the experimental platforms considered, are examined. Besides the standard case of constant time-delays, uncertainties are also considered and modeled by different types of distributions (uniform, normal and gamma distribution with gap). In the sequel, for overcoming the drawback of time-delays, two new approaches are proposed. First, the use of Smith predictor-based control is addressed and a specific solution for haptic systems is developed and discussed. The main idea is to introduce into the Smith predictor the environmental forces by using the additional information from the virtual reality regarding the distances between the controlled virtual object and other objects in the scene. To overcome the loss of performances induced by using a fixed gain in the controllers for all situations (free or restricted motions), the second approach proposes a gain-scheduling Proportional Derivative control strategy depending on the distance until a possible collision. Both approaches are experimentally validated on a 3-dof haptic platform, under different scenarios elaborated gradually from simple situations - free and restricted motion, contacts with moving objects, to more complex situations - virtual box with fixed or moving sides.

<p>Emission from cars today is one of the biggest environmental issues, hence stringent government standards have been introduced to decrease emission. Car companies do not only have to satisfy government standards, but also meet consumer demands on increased fuel economy and good drivablility. This report will introduce controllers designed to control the air/fuel ratio in an SI engine. The engine model used is simplified. The engine components modelled include the inlet manifold, fuel dynamics, combustion and exhaust sensor. </p><p>Nonlinearities and delays are inherent in the engine dynamics and as such a Smith Predictor is utilised as the basis for controller structure to compensate for the delays. Here the Smith Predictor is combined with feedforwarding of the mass air charge, which is estimated from both the inlet and combustion models. Therefore different ways of merging the estimates are also explored. </p><p>A real engine was not accesible, thus simulators were implemented using data sets provided by General Motors. Model errors were introduced to test the controllers performance. The proposed methods should be tested on a real engine to ensure that this isa viable approach, as the simulations show it maybe promising to use in practice.</p>

During the last decades, virtual environments have become very popular and are largely used in many domains as, for example, prototyping, trainings for different devices, assistance in completing difficult tasks, etc. The interaction with the virtual reality, as well as the feedback force, is assured by haptic interfaces. Generally, such systems are affected by communication and processing time-delays, resulting in a deterioration of performances. In this thesis, a complete study of the existing methods, as well as theoretical tools and new solutions, are proposed for the haptic framework. First, a comparative study, based on the experimental results obtained on a 1-dof haptic system, highlights the advantages and drawbacks of the most common control algorithms ported from teleoperation to haptics. Next, the theoretical tools needed in analyzing the stability of the delayed systems in different situations, as well as the physical limitations of the experimental platforms considered, are examined. Besides the standard case of constant time-delays, uncertainties are also considered and modeled by different types of distributions (uniform, normal and gamma distribution with gap). In the sequel, for overcoming the drawback of time-delays, two new approaches are proposed. First, the use of Smith predictor-based control is addressed and a specific solution for haptic systems is developed and discussed. The main idea is to introduce into the Smith predictor the environmental forces by using the additional information from the virtual reality regarding the distances between the controlled virtual object and other objects in the scene. To overcome the loss of performances induced by using a fixed gain in the controllers for all situations (free or restricted motions), the second approach proposes a gain-scheduling Proportional Derivative control strategy depending on the distance until a possible collision. Both approaches are experimentally validated on a 3-dof haptic platform, under different scenarios elaborated gradually from simple situations - free and restricted motion, contacts with moving objects, to more complex situations - virtual box with fixed or moving sides.

Emission from cars today is one of the biggest environmental issues, hence stringent government standards have been introduced to decrease emission. Car companies do not only have to satisfy government standards, but also meet consumer demands on increased fuel economy and good drivablility. This report will introduce controllers designed to control the air/fuel ratio in an SI engine. The engine model used is simplified. The engine components modelled include the inlet manifold, fuel dynamics, combustion and exhaust sensor. Nonlinearities and delays are inherent in the engine dynamics and as such a Smith Predictor is utilised as the basis for controller structure to compensate for the delays. Here the Smith Predictor is combined with feedforwarding of the mass air charge, which is estimated from both the inlet and combustion models. Therefore different ways of merging the estimates are also explored. A real engine was not accesible, thus simulators were implemented using data sets provided by General Motors. Model errors were introduced to test the controllers performance. The proposed methods should be tested on a real engine to ensure that this isa viable approach, as the simulations show it maybe promising to use in practice.

Este trabalho apresenta uma proposta de solução para compensar o atraso variável, característico de redes IP. O preditor de Smith é tradicionalmente usado para compensar atrasos, mas no caso deste tipo de rede um fator importante que pode degradar o controle do sistema são as grandes variações nos atrasos sofridos pelas mensagens. Para tratar este problema, este trabalho baseia-se na criação de uma estrutura de dados de armazenamento para a saída do preditor de Smith, possibilitando a comparação do valor de saída da planta com o valor adequado guardado na estrutura. Para determinação do valor correspondente, este está associado a um índice calculado com o tempo de roundtrip obtido de informações dos pacotes de dados proveniente da planta. Para se chegar a tal solução, foi analisada nas primeiras seções a influência do atraso em malhas de controle e posteriormente um estudo do estado da arte para tipos de controle sobre redes IP. Ao final é apresentada uma análise experimental, demonstrando resultados promissores da aplicação desta proposta. / This work presents a solution to compensate the varying delay, characteristic of IP networks. The Smith predictor is traditionally used to compensate delays but in this type of networks an other important factor that can destabilize the system is the large jitter of the delay. In order to solve this problem, the solution presented here is based on a data structure to save the output from the model of the plant used by the Smith predictor, that make possible to compare the output from the plant with the corresponding value in the structure. In order to take the correspondent value, it is associated to an index which is calculated with the roundtrip obtained from the informations in the packet arrived from the plant. In order to formulate this solution, it was analised in the first sections the influence of the delay in control systems and then a study of the state of art of the control systems over IP networks. At the end, an experimental analise to demonstrate the good result of the application of this solution is presented.

Este trabalho apresenta uma proposta de solução para compensar o atraso variável, característico de redes IP. O preditor de Smith é tradicionalmente usado para compensar atrasos, mas no caso deste tipo de rede um fator importante que pode degradar o controle do sistema são as grandes variações nos atrasos sofridos pelas mensagens. Para tratar este problema, este trabalho baseia-se na criação de uma estrutura de dados de armazenamento para a saída do preditor de Smith, possibilitando a comparação do valor de saída da planta com o valor adequado guardado na estrutura. Para determinação do valor correspondente, este está associado a um índice calculado com o tempo de roundtrip obtido de informações dos pacotes de dados proveniente da planta. Para se chegar a tal solução, foi analisada nas primeiras seções a influência do atraso em malhas de controle e posteriormente um estudo do estado da arte para tipos de controle sobre redes IP. Ao final é apresentada uma análise experimental, demonstrando resultados promissores da aplicação desta proposta. / This work presents a solution to compensate the varying delay, characteristic of IP networks. The Smith predictor is traditionally used to compensate delays but in this type of networks an other important factor that can destabilize the system is the large jitter of the delay. In order to solve this problem, the solution presented here is based on a data structure to save the output from the model of the plant used by the Smith predictor, that make possible to compare the output from the plant with the corresponding value in the structure. In order to take the correspondent value, it is associated to an index which is calculated with the roundtrip obtained from the informations in the packet arrived from the plant. In order to formulate this solution, it was analised in the first sections the influence of the delay in control systems and then a study of the state of art of the control systems over IP networks. At the end, an experimental analise to demonstrate the good result of the application of this solution is presented.

Este trabalho apresenta uma proposta de solução para compensar o atraso variável, característico de redes IP. O preditor de Smith é tradicionalmente usado para compensar atrasos, mas no caso deste tipo de rede um fator importante que pode degradar o controle do sistema são as grandes variações nos atrasos sofridos pelas mensagens. Para tratar este problema, este trabalho baseia-se na criação de uma estrutura de dados de armazenamento para a saída do preditor de Smith, possibilitando a comparação do valor de saída da planta com o valor adequado guardado na estrutura. Para determinação do valor correspondente, este está associado a um índice calculado com o tempo de roundtrip obtido de informações dos pacotes de dados proveniente da planta. Para se chegar a tal solução, foi analisada nas primeiras seções a influência do atraso em malhas de controle e posteriormente um estudo do estado da arte para tipos de controle sobre redes IP. Ao final é apresentada uma análise experimental, demonstrando resultados promissores da aplicação desta proposta. / This work presents a solution to compensate the varying delay, characteristic of IP networks. The Smith predictor is traditionally used to compensate delays but in this type of networks an other important factor that can destabilize the system is the large jitter of the delay. In order to solve this problem, the solution presented here is based on a data structure to save the output from the model of the plant used by the Smith predictor, that make possible to compare the output from the plant with the corresponding value in the structure. In order to take the correspondent value, it is associated to an index which is calculated with the roundtrip obtained from the informations in the packet arrived from the plant. In order to formulate this solution, it was analised in the first sections the influence of the delay in control systems and then a study of the state of art of the control systems over IP networks. At the end, an experimental analise to demonstrate the good result of the application of this solution is presented.

Este trabalho apresenta todo um projeto de um sistema de supervisão e controle de um trocador de calor, desde os ensaios experimentais para a elaboração de um modelo matemático até a implementação do sistema de controle e supervisão em microcomputador. O sistema implementado consiste de um software didático e um sistema de aquisição de dados que irão realizar a supervisão e controle de um trocador de calor tipo casco e tubos. Neste software didático é possível implementar o controle PID e suas variações PI-D e I-PD além de permitir a implementação do sistema de controle adaptativo estrutura gain scheduling o qual muda os parâmetros de um controle PID de acordo com a mudança da dinâmica do trocador de calor. Como o trocador de calor apresenta um tempo morto em sua dinâmica, então optou-se por adicionar ao software didático um controle com algoritmo preditivo estrutura Preditor de Smith desta forma é possível realizar ensaios com e sem o algoritmo preditivo para uma comparação de resultados. Este sistema de supervisão e controle do trocador de calor poderá ser usado como ferramenta didática para alunos de diversos cursos, onde é possível realizar ensaios de diferentes estruturas de controle para posterior comparação e estudo de seus resultados. Resultados práticos de todas as estruturas de controle que o software implementa são apresentados e comparados neste trabalho. / This work presents thorough a supervision and control system project of a heat exchanger, from the experimental tests for the mathematical model rising to the control system implementation and supervision in a microcomputer. The implemented system consists of didactic software and a data acquisition system that will perform the supervision and control of a heat exchanger shell and tube type. In this didactic software it is possible to implement the PID control and its variations PI-D and I-PD besides allowing the implementation of the adaptive control system gain scheduling structure, which changes the PID control parameters according to the changes of the heat exchanger dynamics. As the heat exchanger presents dead time on its dynamics, it was opted to add to the didactic software a control with Smith Predictor structure predictive algorithm, thus it is possible to perform tests with and without the predictive algorithm for result comparison. This supervision and control system of the heat exchanger will be able to be used as a didactic tool for students from several courses, where it is possible to perform tests with different control structures to further comparison and study of its results. Pratical results of all the control structures that the software implements are presented and compared in this work.

As atividades sócio-econômicas vêm provocando alterações nocivas ao meio ambiente que atualmente assumem proporções mundiais. Graças à maciça utilização de combustíveis fósseis para a geração de energia e às crescentes práticas de desmatamento e queimadas das florestas, a concentração de dióxido de carbono (CO2) na atmosfera vem aumentando drasticamente. Como este gás é o principal responsável pelo efeito estufa, ele tem grande importância nos estudos e na mitigação do aquecimento global. Para justificar o seqüestro de carbono como um dos caminhos para ajudar na solução deste problema, muitos estudos vêm sendo realizados para avaliar os efeitos nas plantas de uma maior concentração desse gás. As câmaras de topo aberto (OTC, do inglês, open top chambers) são estruturas propícias para tais estudos, pois permitem o controle da concentração de CO2 interno sem que outros fatores climáticos como temperatura, umidade e luminosidade sejam demasiadamente alterados. Este trabalho teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um sistema para controlar o nível de CO2 no interior de uma OTC. Em termos de instrumentação eletrônica, foram instalados um sensor de CO2 e uma válvula proporcional, integrados a uma placa de aquisição de dados. Um modelo linear relacionando o CO2 na câmara ao sinal elétrico aplicado à válvula proporcional foi obtido aplicando-se técnicas de Identificação de Sistemas aos dados experimentais coletados com o processo operando em malha aberta. Este modelo foi utilizado no projeto de um controlador com compensação de tempo morto, baseado na estrutura de um preditor de Smith. O desempenho do sistema projetado foi analisado através de simulações, antes de implementá-lo na forma de um instrumento virtual. Os testes mostraram que o sistema manteve a concentração de CO2 na câmara próxima do valor de referência (720 ± 35 ppm) mesmo diante de distúrbios externos criados propositadamente durante os ensaios. / The harmful changes to the environment caused by socio-economic activities are now spread worldwide. Due to the massive use of fossil fuels for energy generation, to the increase in deforestation and forest burning, the carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration in the atmosphere has drastically increased. As this gas is the main responsible for the greenhouse effect, it has great importance for the studies and the mitigation of global warming. In order to justify carbon sequestration as an alternative to help solve this problem, many studies have been conducted to evaluate the effect of a greater concentration of this gas on plants. Open-top chambers (OTCs) are well suited for such studies, because they allow the control of the internal CO2 concentration without significantly modifying other environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and luminosity. This work aimed to develop a system to control the CO2 level inside an OTC. In terms of electronic instrumentation, a CO2 sensor and a proportional valve, integrated to a data acquisition board, were used. A linear model relating CO2 in the chamber to the electric signal applied to the proportional valve was obtained applying System Identification techniques to the experimental data collected from the process operating in open-loop mode. This model was used in the project of a controller with dead time compensation, based on the Smith Predictor structure. The performance of the projected system was analyzed through simulations, before implementing it in the form of a virtual instrument. The tests showed that the system kept the CO2 concentration of the chamber near the set-point (720 ± 35 ppm) even in the presence of external disturbances purposely created during the experiments.