The purpose of this study was to record and analyze students' experiences with dropping out of high school within a social capital framework. Discussing the stories of high school dropouts provided valuable information related to the root causes of dropout behaviors in a social capital context. This information can be used to develop programs designed to increase social capital in schools, families, and communities, which can contribute to a decrease in dropout behaviors. This phenomenological study took a narratological research approach that focused on collecting the lived experiences of high school dropouts within a social capital framework. The context of this study was a high school in an urban school division in Southwestern Virginia. The participants were five high school dropouts who speak English as a primary language and were a part of the general education population at the high school. Triangulation of data sources included field notes, interviews with the participants, and archival documents. A three-iteration code mapping procedure was used for data analysis to provide an audit trail. Narrative descriptions of the life histories of each participant were written. The overarching themes resulting from the analysis across the narratives were that none of the students had relationships with members of their families or communities who had the capacity to assist them in their endeavors to complete school; students had the desire to complete school or obtain a GED, but did not have a relationship with any person outside of the school setting who was persistent with encouragement and knowledge; and the students had access to social capital, but did not understand how to use it effectively. Results and conclusions are included in two articles, one written for publication in Sociology of Education, and the other written for publication in Professional School Counseling. / Ph. D.

This study examined whether measures of social capital were significant predictors of enrollment in postsecondary education for students from a low SES background. Results take the form of two articles. The first article addresses enrollment in four-year institutions of postsecondary education, and the second article addresses enrollment in two-year institutions of postsecondary education. The research questions for this study were: 1. Does probability of enrollment in a four-year postsecondary institution or a two-year postsecondary institution for low SES students differ by mean school SES? 2. Does probability of enrollment in a four-year postsecondary institution or a two-year postsecondary institution for low SES students differ by school locale? 3. When controlling for contextual or environmental variables and student background characteristics, are low SES students with higher levels of social capital more likely to enroll in a four-year postsecondary institution or a two-year postsecondary institution than low SES students with lower levels of social capital? 4. When controlling for contextual or environmental variables, background characteristics, and level of social capital does probability of enrollment in a four-year institution of postsecondary education or a two-year postsecondary institution vary by race for low SES students? When controlling for school level variables, academic achievement and preparation, and select background characteristics, low SES students with higher levels of social capital are more likely to enroll in a four-year college. Students whose parents expected them to obtain more education and those students who obtained more information about attending college were more likely to enroll in a four-year university. In the analysis of enrollment in four-year institutions of postsecondary education, African American low SES students were three times more likely to enroll in a four-year college or university than low SES Caucasian students. Only one measure of social capital, information acquisition, was significantly related to enrollment in a two-year institution of postsecondary education. No significant variability in probability of enrollment in a two-year institution of postsecondary education was observed by either of the school level variables used. Race was not a significant factor when controlling for background characteristics and the measures of social capital used in this study. / Ph. D.

We introduce a spatial cost topology in the network formation model analyzed by Jackson and Wolinsky, <i>Journal of Economic Theory </i><b>71 </b> (1996), 44--74. This cost topology might represent geographical, social, or individual differences. It describes variable costs of establishing social network connections. Participants form links based on a cost-benefit analysis. We examine the pairwise stable networks within this spatial environment. Incentives vary enough to show a rich pattern of emerging behavior. We also investigate the subgame perfect implementation of pairwise stable and efficient networks. We construct a multistage extensive form game that describes the formation of links in our spatial environment. Finally, we identify the conditions under which the subgame perfect Nash equilibria of these network formation games are stable. We analyze the dynamic implications of learning in a large population coordination game where both the actions of the players and the communication network evolve over time. Cost considerations of social interaction are incorporated by considering a circular model with endogenous neighborhoods, meaning that the locations of the players are fixed but players can create their own communication network.The dynamic process describing medium-run behavior is shown to converge to an absorbing state, which may be characterized by coexistence of conventions. In the long run, when mistake probabilities are small but nonvanishing, coexistence of conventions is no longer sustainable as the risk-dominant convention becomes the unique stochastically stable state. We create and investigate a system that is capable of observing the accumulation of social capital and the effect of social capital accumulation on behavior of individually rational players. In the first model, we develop a restricted system to show that social capital forms and is maintained at a steady state level. The resulting network is the chain. The second model uses a congestion function in conjunction with social capital to show a network emerge that contains links that costlier than those in the chain network. / Ph. D.

Innovation is the central value of economic behavior. In this dissertation research, I attempt to explore the social and cognitive origins of firm innovation through three interrelated studies, by merging several research streams — managerial cognitions, social networks, and innovation, and collecting data through multiple methods — archives and surveys. First, I proposed a social-cognitive view to study the sources of firm innovation. In the context of firm innovation, top management teams' cognitions or an entrepreneur's cognitions shape the way they use the social structure available to them, while the social structures influence the embedded actors' cognitions and ultimately strategic actions. Managers and entrepreneurs form collaborative partnerships aimed at innovation and competitiveness. During this dynamic social learning process, cognitive differences influence the formation of social capital and its realized benefits. The impact of social capital on innovation cannot be evaluated without understanding the individual cognitive characteristic first. Next, I tested this theoretical model in two contexts. In the first empirical study, I derived firm-level hypotheses that link the top management team's cognitions, the firm's social capital, and the technological innovations. These hypotheses are tested on a sample of U.S. semiconductor firms in the years 1991-1998. In the second empirical study, I derived similar hypotheses that link entrepreneur's cognitions, social capital and startup's technological innovations. A survey was conducted in both Pennsylvania and Virginia, targeting the entrepreneurial firms in technology industries. The hypotheses were empirically tested on a final sample of 70 U.S. small and medium-sized manufacturers. Two empirical studies supported some of the derived hypotheses and the findings have significant theoretical, empirical, and practical implications. In a diverse social network, actors' knowledge structure tends to be more complex, and more centralized. In addition, these studies indicate that both social capital and cognitive structure play important roles in technological innovation. By distinguishing between cognitive structures, as well as social capital characteristics, and by investigating their effects on firm innovations, this dissertation extends the literature on organization theory, innovation research, entrepreneurship, and research methodologies. This dissertation research deepens our understanding of firm innovation, and opens a whole line of further research. / Ph. D.

This study seeks to offer a meaningful statement about the relative importance of self-processes and activated social capital in the process that links high school students and educational outcomes. The conceptual model for the study draws on the large and diverse body of research that aims to understand the process and effects of the interaction of the person and his or her environment. It is hypothesized that adaptive self-processes and social capital are positively related to school engagement, educational aspirations, and actual performance in school; and, that these factors mediate the effects of family background and other potential social capital on educational outcomes. The data for this study were obtained from a sample of N=1,176 in grades 9-12 from three school divisions in Virginia. Students completed the School Relationships and Experiences Survey (SRES), an instrument designed for this study. The study uses structural equation modeling (SEM) to model the relationships between the variables of interest. Data were analyzed using LISREL 8.3 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993). The covariance structure models tested include both single-indicator and multiple-indicator constructs. The analysis follows the two-step procedure suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). First, a measurement model was tested using confirmatory factor analysis to develop a model with acceptable fit to the data. In step two, the theoretical model of interest was specified as an a priori model. This theoretical model was then tested and revised until a theoretically meaningful and statistically acceptable model was found. In conclusion, the results of the analyses are discussed, and possible explanations for the results are proposed. Directions for future research are outlined, including the need for cross-validation of this model on additional samples of high school students. Social capital has previously been conceptualized primarily as family resources and parent-child relationships. This study provides promising initial evidence that activated social capital (education-related support received by adolescents from the broader social network) has stronger and more meaningful effects on academic engagement and other educational outcomes than the more passive indicators of social capital used in previous research. This work was supported by a doctoral fellowship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and a grant from the ASPIRES program at Virginia Tech. / Ph. D.

The current study drew on a large and diverse body of literature on social capital and aimed to understand its role in the process of transition from college to work. In particular, this research studied the cumulative effects of social capital formed in high school years and college years and examined its relationship with job outcomes. The study used the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) to examine whether early investment in the social capital of young adolescents produced better job outcomes in their adulthood. Families and schools were two primary sources of social capital considered in the current study. Parental involvement in a young person's life, extra-curricular activities and participation in volunteer organizations were some of the forms of social capital hypothesized to influence job outcomes after college. Structural equations modeling was used to trace the effects of the presence of social capital as early as the 8th grade in shaping student's later career status. The longitudinal data measured social capital beginning in the 8th grade and every 2 years thereafter, so that the cumulative effects of the social capital resources were investigated. Overall, the hypothesized model was found to fit the data and the findings have suggested a set of positive and direct effects of social capital on job outcomes. / Ph. D.

In this study, conceptual models of young adult citizenship participation eight years post high school using Putnam's (1993) theory of social capital are tested. This study uses a longitudinal database. Specifically, the models posit that accumulation of more social capital resources during adolescence will be associated with more positive future life expectations related to educational, occupational, and family life outcomes. Subsequently, these more positive future life expectations and social capital resources will be associated with a higher degree of citizenship participation (as measured by voting behavior, community integration and volunteerism) as young adults. Measures from the 1990, 1992 and 2000 waves of the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS:88) dataset were used. The models were examined using structural equation modeling procedures. Findings indicate that school and community social capital had mixed results regarding their effects on the final outcome variables. Teacher interactions were not found to have a statistically significant direct effect on any of the three citizenship participation outcome variables. But this result should be viewed with caution due to possible measurement problems with the construct of teacher interactions. Peer interactions did have a statistically significant, direct, effect on community integration and volunteerism, but it did not have a direct effect on voting behavior. Participation in extracurricular school activities did have a small, direct, effect on all three outcome variables. Participation in community sports activities had a positive direct effect on community integration, a small negative effect on voting behavior, and no statistically significant effect on volunteerism. Finally, participation in other types of community activities had the largest direct effects on all three citizenship participation outcome variables. The adolescent social capital variables of teacher interactions, peer interactions, and participation in other types of community activities for tenth graders did have positive, direct effects on future life expectations for twelfth graders. Extracurricular activities participation and community sports participation were not found to have an effect on future life expectations. Future life expectations were found to have a very small, but statistically significant, positive, direct effect on all three citizenship participation variables. These findings indicate that some adolescent social capital resources can have positive direct effects on the long term, young adult, educational outcome of citizenship participation. But it varies by type of social capital resource and by the particular aspect of citizenship behavior being measured. / Ph. D.

The effects of traditional internet (e.g. email and web browsing) and social media (e.g. Facebook, Google +, Twitter etc.) remain a valuable area of study among scholars seeking to understand civic engagement (e.g. volunteering, attending political rallies, protesting about local issues etc.). Building off the work of previous researchers who sought to identify connections between traditional internet, social media and civic engagement, this study adds to that body of knowledge by examining whether social media has independent effects on offline civic engagement beyond those of traditional internet. In addition to this, because age is an important factor in the use of traditional internet or social media, this study also investigated whether social media use is reducing the traditional age effect in civic engagement. Lastly, the study also examined the relationship among several dimensions of social capital including group membership, discussion networks, trust and norms of reciprocity which have been linked to offline civic engagement by some scholars, although, some scholars have questioned how some of these social capital measures (e.g. trust, norms of reciprocity) affect online civic engagement. I tested several hypotheses about these relationships using data collected from a 2012 survey of residents in the geographic area of Blacksburg and Montgomery County, VA. The statistical analyses entailed building a series of structural equation models and regression models to predict the civic engagement of these residents. The results provide evidence that: 1) social media has additional effects on offline civic engagement beyond those of traditional internet. 2) That social media was a strong mediator of the relationship between group membership and offline civic engagement; and 3) discussion networks and offline civic engagement. The study did not find any relationship between trust, social media and offline civic engagement. Nonetheless, compared to all other forms of engagement, the study was able to demonstrate that social media may represent a breakthrough in our understanding of how developments in information and technology are shaping and influencing young adults' civic engagement. / Ph. D.

Leadership programs serve as a mechanism to develop the leadership capacity of individuals, groups, and organizations. Although considerable time and resources have been devoted to understanding the outcomes of leadership development, little time and effort has been dedicated to understanding the developmental approaches that influence the emergence of these outcomes. The purpose of this study was to explore and untangle the relationships between common leadership development approaches, networking ability, and social capital outcomes. A sample of graduates from 15 agricultural-based leadership development programs, and a two-phase, convergent parallel mixed methods (QUAN + QUAL) design, were used to assess the relationships between the aforementioned constructs. Specifically, this research explored the influence of common leadership development approaches – conceptual understanding, feedback, personal growth, and skill building – on networking ability and the following dimensions of social capital: (a) groups and networks, (b) trust and solidarity, and (c) cooperation and political action. Quantitative data were collected using a cross-sectional, web-based survey (n = 231), and qualitative data were collected using semi-structured interviews (n =11). Equal priority was given to the quantitative and qualitative data, which was collected concurrently, analyzed independently, and mixed at the conclusions and metainference stage. The findings indicate that participation in an agricultural leadership program influences the social capital capacity of graduates by providing opportunities that facilitate the emergence of new, appropriable social networks. Through a variety of learning activities and shared experiences, participants diversify their social network and develop strong network connections. These connections, and the embedded social capital (i.e., relational) resources, are being accessed frequently for advice, information, and support. As reported by program graduates, personal growth and skill building were identified as the most influential approaches for developing leadership capacity. These approaches, which are characterized by collaborative, group learning, also had the strongest relationships with networking ability. Networking ability should be specifically targeted and included in leadership development curricula because it can influence cooperation and political action, which have been described as the highest levels of social capital. Informal learning also plays an important role in the development of trust, strong bonds, and solidarity among program participants. / Ph. D.

Formerly incarcerated students comprise a population that has been largely overlooked, when it comes to the recognition of their higher education promise and potential (Strayhorn et al., 2013; U.S. Department of Education, 2021). This lack of recognition contributes to the perpetuation of race- and class-based inequities and discounts the talents and potential of a multitude of individuals. In order to advance social justice and equity for this marginalized group, further exploration of their experiences with higher education is warranted. This exploration is increasingly timely, as the reinstatement of Pell eligibility for incarcerated students may place many more incarcerated individuals on a trajectory to continue pursuing their degrees at higher education institutions located outside of prison walls post-release. Although much research has been done on higher education courses offered in prison, relatively little is known about the experiences of formerly incarcerated students as they pursue higher education after prison release (Donaldson & Viera, 2021; Livingston & Miller, 2014; McTier et al., 2020b; Strayhorn et al., 2013).This qualitative study used the theoretical framework of social capital to explore the experiences of formerly incarcerated students as they have transitioned out of prison and into on-campus learning at institutions of higher education. The study was primarily aimed at obtaining a better understanding of the barriers and supports that formerly incarcerated students experience as they pursue higher education, focusing specifically on the ways in which they are able to cultivate a sense of belonging. Additionally, the study explored the motivations behind formerly incarcerated students’ decisions to continue pursuing higher education after their release from prison as well as their expectations for the future post-graduation. Data were collected through surveys, semi-structured, in-depth interviews with formerly incarcerated undergraduate and graduate students, and publicly accessible articles and video featuring the higher education experiences of formerly incarcerated students. Findings revealed that formerly incarcerated students’ decisions to continue higher education after prison were influenced by several factors, including personal transformations that led to the revaluation of higher education and the desire for better professional prospects after prison. Additionally, the decision to continue higher education was influenced by the acquisition of meaningful social capital that occurred through in-prison education. Connections to faculty members and fellow students made the task of earning a college degree on campus seem more attainable. Pertaining to barriers to experiencing a sense of belonging on campus, students who were formerly incarcerated dealt with culture shock during their transition from prison to on-campus learning; concerns over being stigmatized and perceived negatively by others; limitations and restrictions imposed on them by the halfway houses in which many of them lived; and a lack of shared experience with others on campus. Conversely, formerly incarcerated students found support and a sense of belonging in the context of the program in which they were involved, which offered them a sense of family and access to multi-faceted support services. Positive relationships with faculty also facilitated the cultivation of a sense of belonging among formerly incarcerated students, as did instances where they were able to leverage their life experiences in order to educate, inform, and mentor others on campus. Notably, the program provided various resources and opportunities to form meaningful connections with others, including other formerly incarcerated students, program staff, and faculty connected to the program. In this way, social capital acquisition—in the form of meaningful and supportive relationships fostered through the program—was most instrumental in facilitating a sense of belonging within their institution of higher education. Findings also showed that the higher education experiences of formerly incarcerated students had an overall positive effect on their perceptions of post-graduation opportunities. Through their higher education experiences, and more specifically through their time in the RISE-UP [a pseudonym] program, participants expanded their perspective on what they thought possible for themselves and gained confidence that their goals for the future were attainable. The program facilitated widespread networking and other opportunities for students, which led them to acquire a great deal of social capital. This social capital they acquired was most important in shaping their positive expectations for their post-graduation futures. As formerly incarcerated students are not a homogenous group, findings differed slightly based on factors such as gender, age, race/ethnicity, and campus attended. Findings of the current study show that in higher education spaces formerly incarcerated students have much to contribute but often face considerable barriers, particularly when it comes to establishing a sense of belonging. The findings have many important implications and suggest that by adopting certain policies and practices universities, administration, and faculty could help to better meet the needs of formerly incarcerated students and thereby increase their chances of academic, professional, and personal success. Future research should be conducted to further understand the experiences of diverse groups of formerly incarcerated students situated in various higher contexts. / Policy, Organizational and Leadership Studies